the cleveland era-第21章

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uction　as　for　imitation；　and　by　means　of　glosses　and　interpretations　conclusions　may　be　reached　which　would　have　surprised　the　Fathers　to　whom　they　are　imputed。　Those　who　examine　the　records　of　the　formative　period　of　American　institutions；　not　to　obtain　material　for　a　case　but　simply　to　ascertain　the　facts；　will　readily　observe　that　what　is　known　as　the　principle　of　strict　construction　dates　only　from　the　organization　of　national　parties　under　the　Constitution。　It　was　an　invention　of　the　opposition　to　Federalist　rule　and　was　not　held　by　the　makers　of　the　Constitution　themselves。　The　main　concern　of　the　framers　was　to　get　power　for　the　National　Government；　and　they　went　as　far　as　they　could　with　such　success　that　striking　instances　may　be　culled　from　the　writings　of　the　Fathers　showing　that　the　scope　they　contemplated　has　yet　to　be　attained。　Strict　construction　affords　a　short　and　easy　way　of　avoiding　troublesome　issuesalways　involved　in　unforeseen　national　developmentsby　substituting　the　question　of　constitutional　power　for　a　question　of　public　propriety。　But　this　method　has　the　disadvantage；　that　it　belittles　the　Constitution　by　making　it　an　obstacle　to　progress。　Running　through　much　political　controversy　in　the　United　States　is　the　argument　that；　even　granting　that　a　proposal　has　all　the　merit　claimed　for　it；　nevertheless　it　cannot　be　adopted　because　the　Constitution　is　against　it。　By　strict　logical　inference　the　rejoinder　then　comes　that；　if　so；　the　Constitution　is　no　longer　an　instrument　of　national　advantage。　The　traditional　attachment　of　the　American　people　to　the　Constitution　has　indeed　been　so　strong　that　they　have　been　loath　to　accept　the　inference　that　the　Constitution　is　out　of　date；　although　the　quality　of　legislation　at　Washington　kept　persistently　suggesting　that　view　of　the　case。

The　failures　and　disappointments　resulting　from　the　series　of　national　elections　from　1874　to　1884；　at　last；　made　an　opening　for　party　movements　voicing　the　popular　discontent　and　openly　antagonistic　to　the　traditional　Constitution。　The　Socialist　Labor　party　held　its　first　national　convention　in　1877。　Its　membership　was　mostly　foreign；　of　twenty…four　periodical　publications　then　carried　on　in　the　party　interest；　only　eight　were　in　the　English　language；　and　this　polyglot　press　gave　justification　to　the　remark　that　the　movement　was　in　the　hands　of　people　who　proposed　to　remodel　the　institutions　of　the　country　before　they　had　acquired　its　language。　The　alien　origin　of　the　movement　was　emphasized　by　the　appearance　of　two　Socialist　members　of　the　German　Reichstag；　who　made　a　tour　of　this　country　in　1881　to　stir　up　interest　in　the　cause。　It　was　soon　apparent　that　the　growth　of　the　Socialist　party　organization　was　hindered　by　the　fact　that　its　methods　were　too　studious　and　its　discussions　too　abstract　to　suit　the　energetic　temper　of　the　times。　Many　Socialists　broke　away　to　join　revolutionary　clubs　which　were　now　organized　in　a　number　of　cities　without　any　clearly　defined　principle　save　to　fight　the　existing　system　of　government。

At　this　critical　moment　in　the　process　of　social　disorganization；　the　influence　of　foreign　destructive　thought　made　itself　felt。　The　arrival　of　Johann　Most　from　Europe；　in　the　fall　of　1882；　supplied　this　revolutionary　movement　with　a　leader　who　made　anarchy　its　principle。　Originally　a　German　Socialist　aiming　to　make　the　State　the　sole　landlord　and　capitalist；　he　had　gone　over　to　anarchism　and　proposed　to　dissolve　the　State　altogether；　trusting　to　voluntary　association　to　supply　all　genuine　social　needs。　Driven　from　Germany；　he　had　taken　refuge　in　England；　but　even　the　habitual　British　tolerance　had　given　way　under　his　praise　of　the　assassination　of　the　Czar　Alexander　in　1881　and　his　proposal　to　treat　other　rulers　in　the　same　way。　He　had　just　completed　a　term　of　imprisonment　before　coming　to　the　United　States。　Here；　he　was　received　as　a　hero；　a　great　mass　meeting　in　his　honor　was　held　in　Cooper　Union；　New　York；　in　December；　1882；　and　when　he　toured　the　country　he　everywhere　addressed　large　meetings。

In　October　1883；　a　convention　of　social　revolutionists　and　anarchists　was　held　in　Chicago；　at　which　a　national　organization　was　formed　called　the　International　Working　People's　Association。　The　new　organization　grew　much　faster　than　the　Socialist　party　itself；　which　now　almost　disappeared。　Two　years　later；　the　International　had　a　party　press　consisting　of　seven　German；　two　Bohemian；　and　only　two　English　papers。　Like　the　Socialist　party；　it　was；　therefore；　mainly　foreign　in　its　membership。　It　was　strongest　in　and　about　Chicago；　where　it　included　twenty　groups　with　three　thousand　enrolled　members。　The　anarchist　papers　exhorted　their　adherents　to　provide　themselves　with　arms　and　even　published　instructions　for　the　use　of　dynamite。

Political　and　industrial　conditions　thus　supplied　material　for　an　explosion　which　came　with　shocking　violence。　On　May　4；　1885；　towards　the　close　of　an　anarchist　meeting　held　in　Chicago；　a　dynamite　bomb　thrown　among　a　force　of　policemen　killed　one　and　wounded　many。　Fire　was　at　once　opened　on　both　sides；　and；　although　the　battle　lasted　only　a　few　minutes；　seven　policemen　were　killed　and　about　sixty　wounded；　while　on　the　side　of　the　anarchists；　four　were　killed　and　about　fifty　were　wounded。　Ten　of　the　anarchist　leaders　were　promptly　indicted；　of　whom　one　made　his　escape　and　another　turned　State's　evidence。　The　trial　of　the　remaining　eight　began　on　June　21；　1886；　and　two　months　later　the　death　sentence　was　imposed　upon　seven　and　a　penitentiary　term　of　fifteen　years　upon　one。　The　sentences　of　two　of　the　seven　were　commuted　to　life　imprisonment；　one　committed　suicide　in　his　cell　by　exploding　a　cartridge　in　his　mouth；　and　four　met　death　on　the　scaffold。　While　awaiting　their　fate　they　were　to　a　startling　extent　regarded　as　heroes　and　bore　themselves　as　martyrs　to　a　noble　cause。　Six　years　later；　Illinois　elected　as　governor　John　P。　Altgeld；　one　of　whose　first　steps　was　to　issue　a　pardon　to　the　three　who　were　serving　terms　of　imprisonment　and　to　criticize　sharply　the　conduct　of　the　trial　which　had　resulted　in　the　conviction　of　the　anarchists。

The　Chicago　outbreak　and　its　result　stopped　the　open　spread　of　anarchism。　Organized　labor　now　withdrew　from　any　sort　of　association　with　it。　This　cleared　the　field　for　a　revival　of　the　Socialist　movement　as　the　agency　of　social　and　political　reconstruction。　So　rapidly　did　it　gain　in　membership　and　influence　that　by　1892　it　was　able　to　present　itself　as　an　organized　national　party　appealing　to　public　opinion　for　confidence　and　support；　submitting　its　claims　to　public　discussion；　and　stating　its　case　upon　reasonable　grounds。　Although　its　membership　was　small　in　comparison　with　that　of　the　old　parties；　the　disparity　was　not　so　great　as　it　seemed；　since　the　Socialists　represented　active　intelligence　while　the　other　parties　represented　political　inertia。　From　this　time　on；　Socialist　views　spread　among　college　students；　artists；　and　men　of　letters；　and　the　academic　Socialist　became　a　familiar　figure　in　American　society。

Probably　more　significant　than　the　Socialist　movement；　as　an　indication　of　the　popular　demand　for　radical　reform　in　the　government　of　the　country；　was　the　New　York　campaign　of　Henry　George　in　1886。　He　was　a　San　Francisco　printer　and　journalist　when　he　published　the　work　on　〃Progress　and　Poverty〃　which　made　him　famous。　Upon　the　petition　of　over　thirty　thousand　citizens；　he　became　the　Labor　candidate　for　mayor　of　New　York　City。　The　movement　in　support　of　George　developed　so　much　strength　that　the　regular　parties　felt　compelled　to　put　forward　exceptionally　strong　candidates。　The　Democrats　nominated　Abram　S。　Hewitt；　a　man　of　the　highest　type　of　character；　a　fact　which　was　not　perhaps　so　influential　in　getting　him　the　nomination　as　that　he　was　the　son…in…law　of　Peter　Cooper；　a　philanthropist　justly　beloved　by　the　working　classes。　The　Republicans　nominated　Theodore　Roosevelt；　who　had　already　distinguished　himself　by　his　energy　of　character　and　zeal　for　reform。　Hewitt　was　elected；　but　George　received　68；110　votes　out　of　a　total　of　219；679；　and　stood　second　in　the　poll。　His　supporters　contended　that　he　had　really　been　elected　but　had　been　counted　out；　and　this