贝壳电子书 > 英文原著电子书 > posterior analytics >

第9章

posterior analytics-第9章

小说: posterior analytics 字数: 每页4000字

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页,按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页,按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部!
————未阅读完?加入书签已便下次继续阅读!






B…there will be a syllogism proving A's disconnexion from B thus:







        all A is C;



        no B is C;



        therefore no B is A。







Or if it is B which has a genus D; we have











        all B is D;



        no D is A;



        therefore no B is A; by syllogism;







and the proof will be similar if both A and B have a genus。 That the



genus of A need not be the genus of B and vice versa; is shown by



the existence of mutually exclusive coordinate series of



predication。 If no term in the series ACD。。。is predicable of any



term in the series BEF。。。;and if G…a term in the former series…is



the genus of A; clearly G will not be the genus of B; since; if it



were; the series would not be mutually exclusive。 So also if B has a



genus; it will not be the genus of A。 If; on the other hand; neither A



nor B has a genus and A does not inhere in B; this disconnexion must



be atomic。 If there be a middle term; one or other of them is bound to



have a genus; for the syllogism will be either in the first or the



second figure。 If it is in the first; B will have a genus…for the



premiss containing it must be affirmative: if in the second; either



A or B indifferently; since syllogism is possible if either is



contained in a negative premiss; but not if both premisses are



negative。



  Hence it is clear that one thing may be atomically disconnected from



another; and we have stated when and how this is possible。







                                16







  Ignorance…defined not as the negation of knowledge but as a positive



state of mind…is error produced by inference。



  (1) Let us first consider propositions asserting a predicate's



immediate connexion with or disconnexion from a subject。 Here; it is



true; positive error may befall one in alternative ways; for it may



arise where one directly believes a connexion or disconnexion as



well as where one's belief is acquired by inference。 The error;



however; that consists in a direct belief is without complication; but



the error resulting from inference…which here concerns us…takes many



forms。 Thus; let A be atomically disconnected from all B: then the



conclusion inferred through a middle term C; that all B is A; will



be a case of error produced by syllogism。 Now; two cases are possible。



Either (a) both premisses; or (b) one premiss only; may be false。



(a) If neither A is an attribute of any C nor C of any B; whereas



the contrary was posited in both cases; both premisses will be



false。 (C may quite well be so related to A and B that C is neither



subordinate to A nor a universal attribute of B: for B; since A was



said to be primarily disconnected from B; cannot have a genus; and A



need not necessarily be a universal attribute of all things。



Consequently both premisses may be false。) On the other hand; (b)



one of the premisses may be true; though not either indifferently



but only the major A…C since; B having no genus; the premiss C…B



will always be false; while A…C may be true。 This is the case if;



for example; A is related atomically to both C and B; because when the



same term is related atomically to more terms than one; neither of



those terms will belong to the other。 It is; of course; equally the



case if A…C is not atomic。



  Error of attribution; then; occurs through these causes and in



this form only…for we found that no syllogism of universal attribution



was possible in any figure but the first。 On the other hand; an



error of non…attribution may occur either in the first or in the



second figure。 Let us therefore first explain the various forms it



takes in the first figure and the character of the premisses in each



case。



  (c) It may occur when both premisses are false; e。g。 supposing A



atomically connected with both C and B; if it be then assumed that



no C is and all B is C; both premisses are false。



  (d) It is also possible when one is false。 This may be either



premiss indifferently。 A…C may be true; C…B false…A…C true because A



is not an attribute of all things; C…B false because C; which never



has the attribute A; cannot be an attribute of B; for if C…B were



true; the premiss A…C would no longer be true; and besides if both



premisses were true; the conclusion would be true。 Or again; C…B may



be true and A…C false; e。g。 if both C and A contain B as genera; one



of them must be subordinate to the other; so that if the premiss takes



the form No C is A; it will be false。 This makes it clear that whether



either or both premisses are false; the conclusion will equally be



false。



  In the second figure the premisses cannot both be wholly false;



for if all B is A; no middle term can be with truth universally



affirmed of one extreme and universally denied of the other: but



premisses in which the middle is affirmed of one extreme and denied of



the other are the necessary condition if one is to get a valid



inference at all。 Therefore if; taken in this way; they are wholly



false; their contraries conversely should be wholly true。 But this



is impossible。 On the other hand; there is nothing to prevent both



premisses being partially false; e。g。 if actually some A is C and some



B is C; then if it is premised that all A is C and no B is C; both



premisses are false; yet partially; not wholly; false。 The same is



true if the major is made negative instead of the minor。 Or one



premiss may be wholly false; and it may be either of them。 Thus;



supposing that actually an attribute of all A must also be an



attribute of all B; then if C is yet taken to be a universal attribute



of all but universally non…attributable to B; C…A will be true but C…B



false。 Again; actually that which is an attribute of no B will not



be an attribute of all A either; for if it be an attribute of all A;



it will also be an attribute of all B; which is contrary to



supposition; but if C be nevertheless assumed to be a universal



attribute of A; but an attribute of no B; then the premiss C…B is true



but the major is false。 The case is similar if the major is made the



negative premiss。 For in fact what is an attribute of no A will not be



an attribute of any B either; and if it be yet assumed that C is



universally non…attributable to A; but a universal attribute of B; the



premiss C…A is true but the minor wholly false。 Again; in fact it is



false to assume that that which is an attribute of all B is an



attribute of no A; for if it be an attribute of all B; it must be an



attribute of some A。 If then C is nevertheless assumed to be an



attribute of all B but of no A; C…B will be true but C…A false。



  It is thus clear that in the case of atomic propositions erroneous



inference will be possible not only when both premisses are false



but also when only one is false。







                                17







  In the case of attributes not atomically connected with or



disconnected from their subjects; (a) (i) as long as the false



conclusion is inferred through the 'appropriate' middle; only the



major and not both premisses can be false。 By 'appropriate middle' I



mean the middle term through which the contradictory…i。e。 the



true…conclusion is inferrible。 Thus; let A be attributable to B



through a middle term C: then; since to produce a conclusion the



premiss C…B must be taken affirmatively; it is clear that this premiss



must always be true; for its quality is not changed。 But the major A…C



is false; for it is by a change in the quality of A…C that the



conclusion becomes its contradictory…i。e。 true。 Similarly (

返回目录 上一页 下一页 回到顶部 2 2

你可能喜欢的