history of philosophy-第3章
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living substance； as nature and matter。 All this is a further working out of
reflecting empiricism； and some more details respecting it must still be given。
A。 Idealism and Scepticism
Thought generally is simple； universal self…identity； but in the form of
negative movement； whereby the determinate abrogates itself。 This
movement of Being…for…self is now an essential moment of thought；
while hitherto it was outside it； and thus grasping itself as movement in
itself； thought is self…consciousness … at first indeed formal； as individual
self…consciousness。 Such a form it has in scepticism； but this distinction
marks it off from the older scepticism； that now the certainty of reality is
made the starting point。 With the ancients； on the contrary； scepticism is
the return into individual consciousness in such a way that to it this
consciousness is not the truth； in other words that scepticism does not
give expression to the results arrived at； and attains no positive
significance。 But since in the modern world this absolute substantiality；
this unity of implicitude and self…consciousness is fundamental … that is；
this faith in reality generally … scepticism has here the form of idealism；
i。e。； of expressing self…consciousness or certainty of self as all reality
and truth。 The crudest form of this idealism is when self…consciousness；
as individual or formal； does not proceed further than to say： All objects
are our conceptions。 We find this subjective idealism in Berkeley； （1）
and another form of the same in Hume。
1。 Berkeley
2。 Hume
B。 Scottish Philosophy
In Scotland quite another school of thought developed； and the Scotch
are the foremost of Hume's opponents； in German philosophy； on the
other hand； we have to recognize in Kant another opposing force to
that of Hume。 To the Scottish school many philosophers belong； English
philosophy is now restricted to Edinburgh and Glasgow； in which
places a number of professors belonging to this school succeeded one
another。 To the scepticism of Hume they oppose an inward
independent source of truth for all that pertains to religion and morality。
This coincides with Kant； who also maintains an inward source or
spring as against external perception； but in the case of Kant this has
quite another form than that which it possesses with the Scottish
philosophers。 To them this inward independent source is not thought or
reason as such； for the content which comes to pass from this
inwardness is concrete in its nature； and likewise demands for itself the
external matter of experience。 It consists of popular principles； which
on the one hand are opposed to the externality of the sources of
knowledge； and； on the other； to metaphysics as such； to abstract
thought or reasoning on its own account。 This sort of reasoning
understanding applied itself to ethics and to politics … sciences which
have been much developed by German； French； and above all by
Scottish philosophers （supra； p。 320）； they regarded morality as
cultured men would； and sought to bring moral duties under a principle。
Many of their works are translated into German； several of these on
ethics or morality are translated by Garve； for instance； who also
translated Cicero De Officiis； and they are written in a manner similar
to that of Cicero when he uses the expression Insitum est a natura
（Vol。 I。 p。 93）。 This moral sentiment and the ordinary human
understanding hereafter formed the common principle to a whole
succession of Scots； such as Thomas Reid； Beattie； Oswald； and
others； in this way they frequently made sagacious observations； but
with them speculative philosophy quite disappears。 One special
characteristic of these Scottish philosophers is that they have sought
accurately to define the principle of knowledge； but on the whole they
start from the same point as that which was in Germany likewise
accepted as the principle。 That is to say they represented the so…called
healthy reason； or common…sense （sensus communis）； as the ground
of truth。 The following are the principal members of this school； each of
whom has some special feature distinguishing him from the rest。
1。 Thomas Reid
2。 James Beattie
3。 James Oswald
4。 Dugald Stewart
C。 French Philosophy
1。 The Negative Aspect
2。 The Positive Aspect
a。 Materialism
b。 Robinet
3。 Idea of a Concrete Universal Unity
a。 Opposition between Sensation and Thought
b。 Montesquieu
c。 Helvetius
d。 Rousseau
D。 The German Illumination
Section Three： Recent German Philosophy
IN the philosophy of Kant； Fichte； and Schelling； the revolution to which in Germany
mind has in these latter days advanced； was formally thought out and expressed； the
sequence of these philosophies shows the course which thought has taken。 In this
great epoch of the world's history； whose inmost essence is laid hold of in the
philosophy of history； two nations only have played a part； the German and the
French； and this in spite of their absolute opposition； or rather because they are so
opposite。 The other nations have taken no real inward part in the same； although
politically they have indeed so done； both through their governments and their
people。 In Germany this principle has burst forth as thought； spirit； Notion； in France；
in the form of actuality。 In Germany； what there is of actuality comes to us as a force
of external circumstances； and as a reaction against the same。 The task of modern
German philosophy is； however； summed up in taking as its object the unity of
thought and Being； which is the fundamental idea of philosophy generally； and
comprehending it； that is； in laying hold of the inmost significance of necessity； the
Notion （supra； p。 360）。 The philosophy of Kant sets forth； in the first place； the
formal aspect of the task； but it has the abstract absoluteness of reason in
self…consciousness as its sole result； and； in one respect； it carried with it a certain
character of shallowness and want of vigour； in which an attitude of criticism and
negativity is retained； and which； as far as any positive element is concerned； adheres
to the facts of consciousness and to mere conjecture； while it renounces thought and
returns to feeling。 On the other hand； however； there sprang from this the philosophy
of Fichte； which speculatively grasps the essence of self…consciousness as concrete
egoism； but which does not reach beyond this s
