history of philosophy-第97章

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subject　as　we　saw　it　with　the　Stoics；　but　the　task　in　respect　of　content　is　now　placed　on　a　higher
level。　An　endless　aiming　at　the　concrete　is　required　for　thought；　a　filling　up　in　accordance　with　the
rule　which　completion　prescribes；　which　signifies　that　the　content　is　itself　the　Idea　as　the　unity　of
the　Notion　and　reality。　With　Jacobi　thought；　demonstration；　does　not　in　the　first　place　reach
beyond　the　finite　and　conditioned；　and　in　the　Second　place；　even　when　God　is　likewise　the
metaphysical　object；　the　demonstration　is　really　the　making　Him　conditioned　and　finite；　in　the　third
place　the　unconditioned；　what　is　then　immediately　certain；　only　exists　in　faith；　a　subjectively　fixed
point　of　view　but　an　unknowable　one；　that　is　to　say　an　undetermined；　indeterminable；　and
consequently　an　unfruitful　one。　The　standpoint　of　the　philosophy　of　Kant；　on　the　contrary；　is　in　the
first　place　to　be　found　in　the　fact　that　thought　has　through　its　reasoning　got　so　far　as　to　grasp　itself
not　as　contingent　but　rather　as　in　itself　the　absolute　ultimate。　In　the　finite；　in　connection　with　the
finite；　an　absolute　standpoint　is　raised　which　acts　as　a　connecting　bond；　it　binds　together　the　finite
and　leads　up　to　the　infinite。　Thought　grasped　itself　as　all　in　all；　as　absolute　in　judgment；　for　it
nothing　external　is　authoritative；　since　all　authority　can　receive　validity　only　through　thought。　This
thought；　determining　itself　within　itself　and　concrete；　is；　however；　in　the　second　place；　grasped　as
subjective；　and　this　aspect　of　subjectivity　is　the　form　which　from　Jacobi’s　point　of　view　is
predominant；　the　fact　that　thought　is　concrete　Jacobi　has　on　the　other　hand　for　the　most　part　set
aside。　Both　standpoints　remain　philosophies　of　subjectivity；　since　thought　is　subjective；　the
capacity　of　knowing　the　absolute　is　denied　to　it。　To　Kant　God　cannot　on　the　one　hand　be　found　in
experience；　He　can　neither　be　found　in　outward　experience　—　as　Lalande　discovered　when　he
swept　the　whole　heavens　and　found　no　God　—　nor　can　He　be　discovered　within；　though　no　doubt
mystics　and　enthusiasts　can　experience　many　things　in　themselves；　and　amongst　these　God；　i。e。　the
Infinite。　On　the　other　hand　Kant　argues　to　prove　the　existence　of　God；　who　is　to　him　an　hypothesis
necessary　for　the　explanation　of　things；　a　postulate　of　practical　reason。　But　in　this　connection
another　French　astronomer　made　the　following　reply　to　the　Emperor　Napoleon：　“Je　n’ai　pas　eu
besoin　de　cette　hypothèse。”　According　to　this　the　truth　underlying　the　Kantian　philosophy　is　the
recognition　of　freedom。　Even　Rousseau　represented　the　absolute　to　be　found　in　freedom；　Kant　has
the　same　principle；　but　taken　rather　from　the　theoretic　side。　The　French　regard　it　from　the　side　of
will；　which　is　represented　in　their　proverb：　〃Il　a　la　tête　près　du　bonnet。”　France　possesses　the
sense　of　actuality；　of　promptitude；　because　in　that　country　conception　passes　more　immediately
into　action；　men　have　there　applied　themselves　more　practically　to　the　affairs　of　actuality。　But
however　much　freedom　may　be　in　itself　concrete；　it　was　as　undeveloped　and　in　its　abstraction　that
it　was　there　applied　to　actuality；　and　to　make　abstractions　hold　good　in　actuality　means　to　destroy
actuality。　The　fanaticism　which　characterized　the　freedom　which　was　put　into　the　hands　of　the
people　was　frightful。　In　Germany　the　same　principle　asserted　the　rights　of　consciousness　on　its
own　account；　but　it　has　been　worked　out　in　a　merely　theoretic　way。　We　have　commotions　of
every　kind　within　us　and　around　us；　but　through　them　all　the　German　head　quietly　keeps　its
nightcap　on　and　silently　carries　on　its　operations　beneath　it。

Immanuel　Kant　was　born　at　K？nigsberg　in　1724；　and　there　studied　theology　to　begin　with；　in　the
year　1755　he　entered　upon　his　work　as　an　academic　teacher；　in　1770　he　became　professor　of
logic；　and　in　1801　he　died　at　K？nigsberg　on　the　12th　of　February；　having　almost　attained　his
eightieth　year　（Tennemann’s　Grundriss　der　Geschichte　der　Philosophie　by　Wendt；　§　380；　pp。
465；　466）；　without　ever　having　left　his　native　town。

While　to　Wolff　thought　as　thought　was　merely　positive　self…identity　and　grasped　itself　as　such；　we
saw　the　negative　self…moving　thought；　the　absolute　Notion；　appear　in　all　its　power　in　France；　and
in　the　Aufkl？rung　it　likewise　made　its　way　to　Germany　in　such　a　manner　that　all　existence；　all
action；　was　called　upon　to　serve　a　useful　purpose；　i。e。　the　implicit　was　done　away　with　and
everything　had　to　be　for　another；　and　that　for　which　everything　had　to　be　is　man；
self…consciousness；　taken；　however；　as　signifying　all　men　generally。　The　consciousness　of　this
action　in　abstract　form　is　the　Kantian　philosophy。　It　is　thus　the　self…thinking　absolute　Notion　that
passes　into　itself　which　we　see　making　its　appearance　in　Germany　through　this　philosophy；　in　such
a　way　that　all　reality　falls　within　self…consciousness；　it　is　the　idealism　which　vindicates　all　moments
of　the　implicit　to　self…consciousness；　but　which　at　first　itself　remains　subject　to　a　contradiction；
inasmuch　as　it　still　separates　this　implicit　from　itself。　In　other　words　the　Kantian　philosophy　no
doubt　leads　reality　back　to　self…consciousness；　but　it　can　supply　no　reality　to　this　essence　of
self…consciousness；　or　to　this　pure　self…consciousness；　nor　can　it　demonstrate　Being　in　the　same。　It
apprehends　simple　thought　as　having　difference　in　itself；　but　does　not　yet　apprehend　that　all　reality
rests　on　this　difference；　it　does　not　know　how　to　obtain　mastery　over　the　individuality　of
self…consciousness；　and　although　it　describes　reason　very　well；　it　does　this　in　an　unthinking　empiric
way　which　again　robs　it　of　the　truth　it　has。　Theoretically　the　Kantian　philosophy　is　the
“Illumination”　or　Aufkl？rung　reduced　to　method；　it　states　that　nothing　true　can　be　known；　but
only　the　phenomenal；　it　leads　knowledge　into　consciousness　and　self…consciousness；　but　from　this
standpoint　maintains　it　to　be　a　subjective　and　finite　knowledge。　Thus　although　it　deals　with　the
infinite　Idea；　expressing　its　formal　categories　and　arriving　at　its　concrete　claims；　it　yet　again　denies
this　to　be　the　truth；　making　it　a　simple　subjective；　because　it　has　once　for　all　accepted　finite
knowledge　as　the　fixed　and　ultimate　standpoint。　This　philosophy　made　an　end　of　the　metaphysic　of
the　understanding　as　an　objective　dogmatism；　but　in　fact　it　merely　transformed　it　into　a　subjective
dogmatism；　i。e。　into　a　consciousness　in　which　these　same　finite　determinations　of　the　understanding
persist；　and　the　question　of　what　is　true　in　and　for　itself　has　been　abandoned。　Its　study　is　made
difficult　by　its　diffuseness　and　prolixity；　and　by　the　peculiar　terminology　found　in　it。　Nevertheless
this　diffuseness　has　one　advantage；　that　inasmuch　as　the　same　thing　is　often　repeated；　the　main
points　are　kept　before　us；　and　those　cannot　easily　be　lost　from　view。

We　shall　endeavour　to　trace　the　lines　which　Kant　pursued。　The　philosophy　of　Kant　has　in　the　first
place　a　direct　relation　to　that　of　Hume　as　stated　above　（p。　370）。　That　is　to　say；　the　significance　of
the　Kantian　philosophy；　generally　expressed；　is　from　the　very　beginning　to　allow　that
determinations　such　as　those　of　universality　and　necessity　are　not　to　be　met　with　in　perception；　and
this　Hume　has　already　shown　in　relation　to　Locke。　But　while　Hume　attacks　the　universality　and
necessity　of　the　categories　generally；　and　Jacobi　their　finitude；　Kant　merely　argues　against　their
objectivity　in　so　far　as　they　are　present　in　external　things　themselves；　while　maintaining　them　to　be
objective　in　the　sense　of　holding　good　as　universal　and　necessary；　as　they　do；　for　instance；　in
mathematics　and　natural　science。（1）　The　fact　that　we　crave　for　universality　and　necessity　as　that
which　first　constitutes　the　objective；　Kant　thus　undoubtedly　allows。　But　if　universality　and　necessity
do　not　exist　in　external　things；　the　question　arises　“Where　are　they　to　be　found？”　To　this　Kant；　as
against　Hume；　maintains　that　they　must　be　a　priori；　i。e。　that　they　must　rest　on　reason　itself；　and　on
thought　as　self…conscious　reason；　their　source　is　the　subject；　“I”　in　my　self…consciousness。（2）
This；　simply　expressed；　is　th