wealbk01-第34章

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merchant　this　year；　and　a　wine　merchant　the　next；　and　a　sugar；

tobacco；　or　tea　merchant　the　year　after。　He　enters　into　every

trade　when　he　foresees　that　it　is　likely　to　be　more　than　commonly

profitable；　and　he　quits　it　when　he　foresees　that　its　profits　are

likely　to　return　to　the　level　of　other　trades。　His　profits　and

losses；　therefore；　can　bear　no　regular　proportion　to　those　of　any

one　established　and　well…known　branch　of　business。　A　bold

adventurer　may　sometimes　acquire　a　considerable　fortune　by　two　or

three　successful　speculations；　but　is　just　as　likely　to　lose　one

by　two　or　three　unsuccessful　ones。　This　trade　can　be　carried　on

nowhere　but　in　great　towns。　It　is　only　in　places　of　the　most

extensive　commerce　and　correspondence　that　the　intelligence

requisite　for　it　can　be　had。

　　　　　The　five　circumstances　above　mentioned；　though　they　occasion

considerable　inequalities　in　the　wages　of　labour　and　profits　of

stock；　occasion　none　in　the　whole　of　the　advantages　and

disadvantages；　real　or　imaginary；　of　the　different　employments　of

either。　The　nature　of　those　circumstances　is　such　that　they　make

up　for　a　small　pecuniary　gain　in　some；　and　counterbalance　a　great

one　in　others。

　　　　　In　order；　however；　that　this　equality　may　take　place　in　the

whole　of　their　advantages　or　disadvantages；　three　things　are

requisite　even　where　there　is　the　most　perfect　freedom。　First；

the　employments　must　be　well　known　and　long　established　in　the

neighbourhood；　secondly；　they　must　be　in　their　ordinary；　or　what

may　be　called　their　natural　state；　and；　thirdly；　they　must　be　the

sole　or　principal　employments　of　those　who　occupy　them。

　　　　　First；　this　equality　can　take　place　only　in　those

employments　which　are　well　known；　and　have　been　long　established

in　the　neighbourhood。

　　　　　Where　all　other　circumstances　are　equal；　wages　are　generally

higher　in　new　than　in　old　trades。　When　a　projector　attempts　to

establish　a　new　manufacture；　he　must　at　first　entice　his　workmen

from　other　employments　by　higher　wages　than　they　can　either　earn

in　their　own　trades；　or　than　the　nature　of　his　work　would

otherwise　require；　and　a　considerable　time　must　pass　away　before

he　can　venture　to　reduce　them　to　the　common　level。　Manufactures

for　which　the　demand　arises　altogether　from　fashion　and　fancy　are

continually　changing；　and　seldom　last　long　enough　to　be

considered　as　old　established　manufactures。　Those；　on　the

contrary；　for　which　the　demand　arises　chiefly　from　use　or

necessity；　are　less　liable　to　change；　and　the　same　form　or　fabric

may　continue　in　demand　for　whole　centuries　together。　The　wages　of

labour；　therefore；　are　likely　to　be　higher　in　manufactures　of　the

former　than　in　those　of　the　latter　kind。　Birmingham　deals　chiefly

in　manufactures　of　the　former　kind；　Sheffield　in　those　of　the

latter；　and　the　wages　of　labour　in　those　two　different　places　are

said　to　be　suitable　to　this　difference　in　the　nature　of　their

manufactures。

　　　　　The　establishment　of　any　new　manufacture；　of　any　new　branch

of　commerce；　or　of　any　new　practice　in　agriculture；　is　always　a

speculation；　from　which　the　projector　promises　himself

extraordinary　profits。　These　profits　sometimes　are　very　great；

and　sometimes；　more　frequently；　perhaps；　they　are　quite

otherwise；　but　in　general　they　bear　no　regular　proportion　to

those　of　other　old　trades　in　the　neighbourhood。　If　the　project

succeeds；　they　are　commonly　at　first　very　high。　When　the　trade　or

practice　becomes　thoroughly　established　and　well　known；　the

competition　reduces　them　to　the　level　of　other　trades。

　　　　　Secondly；　this　equality　in　the　whole　of　the　advantages　and

disadvantages　of　the　different　employments　of　labour　and　stock；

can　take　place　only　in　the　ordinary；　or　what　may　be　called　the

natural　state　of　those　employments。

　　　　　The　demand　for　almost　every　different　species　of　labour　is

sometimes　greater　and　sometimes　less　than　usual。　In　the　one　case

the　advantages　of　the　employment　rise　above；　in　the　other　they

fall　below　the　common　level。　The　demand　for　country　labour　is

greater　at　hay…time　and　harvest　than　during　the　greater　part　of

the　year；　and　wages　rise　with　the　demand。　In　time　of　war；　when

forty　or　fifty　thousand　sailors　are　forced　from　the　merchant

service　into　that　of　the　king；　the　demand　for　sailors　to　merchant

ships　necessarily　rises　with　their　scarcity；　and　their　wages　upon

such　occasions　commonly　rise　from　a　guinea　and　seven…and…twenty

shillings；　to　forty　shillings　and　three　pounds　a　month。　In　a

decaying　manufacture；　on　the　contrary；　many　workmen；　rather　than

quit　their　old　trade；　are　contented　with　smaller　wages　than　would

otherwise　be　suitable　to　the　nature　of　their　employment。

　　　　　The　profits　of　stock　vary　with　the　price　of　the　commodities

in　which　it　is　employed。　As　the　price　of　any　commodity　rises

above　the　ordinary　or　average　rate；　the　profits　of　at　least　some

part　of　the　stock　that　is　employed　in　bringing　it　to　market；　rise

above　their　proper　level；　and　as　it　falls　they　sink　below　it。　All

commodities　are　more　or　less　liable　to　variations　of　price；　but

some　are　much　more　so　than　others。　In　all　commodities　which　are

produced　by　human　industry；　the　quantity　of　industry　annually

employed　is　necessarily　regulated　by　the　annual　demand；　in　such　a

manner　that　the　average　annual　produce　may；　as　nearly　as

possible；　be　equal　to　the　average　annual　consumption。　In　some

employments；　it　has　already　been　observed；　the　same　quantity　of

industry　will　always　produce　the　same；　or　very　nearly　the　same

quantity　of　commodities。　In　the　linen　or　woollen　manufactures；

for　example；　the　same　number　of　hands　will　annually　work　up　very

nearly　the　same　quantity　of　linen　and　woollen　cloth。　The

variations　in　the　market　price　of　such　commodities；　therefore；

can　arise　only　from　some　accidental　variation　in　the　demand。　A

public　mourning　raises　the　price　of　black　cloth。　But　as　the

demand　for　most　sorts　of　plain　linen　and　woollen　cloth　is　pretty

uniform；　so　is　likewise　the　price。　But　there　are　other

employments　in　which　the　same　quantity　of　industry　will　not

always　produce　the　same　quantity　of　commodities。　The　same

quantity　of　industry；　for　example；　will；　in　different　years；

produce　very　different　quantities　of　corn；　wine；　hops；　sugar；

tobacco；　etc。　The　price　of　such　commodities；　therefore；　varies

not　only　with　the　variations　of　demand；　but　with　the　much　greater

and　more　frequent　variations　of　quantity；　and　is　consequently

extremely　fluctuating。　But　the　profit　of　some　of　the　dealers　must

necessarily　fluctuate　with　the　price　of　the　commodities。　The

operations　of　the　speculative　merchant　are　principally　employed

about　such　commodities。　He　endeavours　to　buy　them　up　when　he

foresees　that　their　price　is　likely　to　rise；　and　to　sell　them

when　it　is　likely　to　fall。

　　　　　Thirdly；　this　equality　in　the　whole　of　the　advantages　and

disadvantages　of　the　different　employments　of　labour　and　stock

can　take　only　in　such　as　are　the　sole　or　principal　employments　of

those　who　occupy　them。

　　　　　When　a　person　derives　his　subsistence　from　one　employment；

which　does　not　occupy　the　greater　part　of　his　time；　in　the

intervals　of　his　leisure　he　is　often　willing　to　work　as　another

for　less　wages　than　would　otherwise　suit　the　nature　of　the

employment。

　　　　　There　still　subsists　in　many　parts　of　Scotland　a　set　of

people　called　Cotters　or　Cottagers；　though　they　were　more

frequent　some　years　ago　than　they　are　now。　They　are　a　sort　of

outservants　of　the　landlords　and　farmers。　The　usual　reward　which

they　receive　from　their　masters　is　a　house；　a　small　garden　for

pot…herbs；　as　much　grass　as　will　feed　a　cow；　and；　perhaps；　an

acre　or　two　of　bad　arable　land。　When　their　master　has　occasion

for　their　labour；　he　gives　them；　besides；　two　pecks　of　oatmeal　a

week；　worth　about　sixteenpence　sterling。　During　a　great　part　of

the　year　he　has　little　or　no　occasion　for　their　labour；　and　the

cultivation　of　their　own　little　possession　is　not　sufficient　to

oc