wealbk01-第44章

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equal　to　what　it　could　maintain；　if　managed　in　the　most

economical　manner；　on　account　of　the　high　wages　which　are

sometimes　given　to　labour。　But　it　can　always　purchase　such　a

quantity　of　labour　as　it　can　maintain；　according　to　the　rate　at

which　the　sort　of　labour　is　commonly　maintained　in　the

neighbourhood。

　　　　　But　land；　in　almost　any　situation；　produces　a　greater

quantity　of　food　than　what　is　sufficient　to　maintain　all　the

labour　necessary　for　bringing　it　to　market　in　the　most　liberal

way　in　which　that　labour　is　ever　maintained。　The　surplus；　too；　is

always　more　than　sufficient　to　replace　the　stock　which　employed

that　labour；　together　with　its　profits。　Something；　therefore；

always　remains　for　a　rent　to　the　landlord。

　　　　　The　most　desert　moors　in　Norway　and　Scotland　produce　some

sort　of　pasture　for　cattle；　of　which　the　milk　and　the　increase

are　always　more　than　sufficient；　not　only　to　maintain　all　the

labour　necessary　for　tending　them；　and　to　pay　the　ordinary　profit

to　the　farmer　or　owner　of　the　herd　or　flock；　but　to　afford　some

small　rent　to　the　landlord。　The　rent　increases　in　proportion　to

the　goodness　of　the　pasture。　The　same　extent　of　ground　not　only

maintains　a　greater　number　of　cattle；　but　as　they　are　brought

within　a　smaller　compass；　less　labour　becomes　requisite　to　tend

them；　and　to　collect　their　produce。　The　landlord　gains　both　ways；

by　the　increase　of　the　produce　and　by　the　diminution　of　the

labour　which　must　be　maintained　out　of　it。

　　　　　The　rent　of　land　not　only　varies　with　its　fertility；

whatever　be　its　produce；　but　with　its　situation；　whatever　be　its

fertility。　Land　in　the　neighbourhood　of　a　town　gives　a　greater

rent　than　land　equally　fertile　in　a　distant　part　of　the　country。

Though　it　may　cost　no　more　labour　to　cultivate　the　one　than　the

other；　it　must　always　cost　more　to　bring　the　produce　of　the

distant　land　to　market。　A　greater　quantity　of　labour；　therefore；

must　be　maintained　out　of　it；　and　the　surplus；　from　which　are

drawn　both　the　profit　of　the　farmer　and　the　rent　of　the　landlord；

must　be　diminished。　But　in　remote　parts　of　the　country　the　rate

of　profits；　as　has　already　been　shown；　is　generally　higher　than

in　the　neighbourhood　of　a　large　town。　A　smaller　proportion　of

this　diminished　surplus；　therefore；　must　belong　to　the　landlord。

　　　　　Good　roads；　canals；　and　navigable　rivers；　by　diminishing　the

expense　of　carriage；　put　the　remote　parts　of　the　country　more

nearly　upon　a　level　with　those　in　the　neighbourhood　of　the　town。

They　are　upon　that　account　the　greatest　of　all　improvements。　They

encourage　the　cultivation　of　the　remote；　which　must　always　be　the

most　extensive　circle　of　the　country。　They　are　advantageous　to

the　town；　by　breaking　down　the　monopoly　of　the　country　in　its

neighbourhood。　They　are　advantageous　even　to　that　part　of　the

country。　Though　they　introduce　some　rival　commodities　into　the

old　market；　they　open　many　new　markets　to　its　produce。　Monopoly；

besides；　is　a　great　enemy　to　good　management；　which　can　never　be

universally　established　but　in　consequence　of　that　free　and

universal　competition　which　forces　everybody　to　have　recourse　to

it　for　the　sake　of　self…defence。　It　is　not　more　than　fifty　years

ago　that　some　of　the　counties　in　the　neighbourhood　of　London

petitioned　the　Parliament　against　the　extension　of　the　turnpike

roads　into　the　remoter　counties。　Those　remoter　counties；　they

pretended；　from　the　cheapness　of　labour；　would　be　able　to　sell

their　grass　and　corn　cheaper　in　the　London　market　than

themselves；　and　would　thereby　reduce　their　rents；　and　ruin　their

cultivation。　Their　rents；　however；　have　risen；　and　their

cultivation　has　been　improved　since　that　time。

　　　　　A　cornfield　of　moderate　fertility　produces　a　much　greater

quantity　of　food　for　man　than　the　best　pasture　of　equal　extent。

Though　its　cultivation　requires　much　more　labour；　yet　the　surplus

which　remains　after　replacing　the　seed　and　maintaining　all　that

labour；　is　likewise　much　greater。　If　a　pound　of　butcher's　meat；

therefore；　was　never　supposed　to　be　worth　more　than　a　pound　of

bread；　this　greater　surplus　would　everywhere　be　of　greater　value；

and　constitute　a　greater　fund　both　for　the　profit　of　the　farmer

and　the　rent　of　the　landlord。　It　seems　to　have　done　so

universally　in　the　rude　beginnings　of　agriculture。

　　　　　But　the　relative　values　of　those　two　different　species　of

food；　bread　and　butcher's　meat；　are　very　different　in　the

different　periods　of　agriculture。　In　its　rude　beginnings；　the

unimproved　wilds；　which　then　occupy　the　far　greater　part　of　the

country；　are　all　abandoned　to　cattle。　There　is　more　butcher's

meat　than　bread；　and　bread；　therefore；　is　the　food　for　which

there　is　the　greatest　competition；　and　which　consequently　brings

the　greatest　price。　At　Buenos　Ayres；　we　are　told　by　Ulloa；　four

reals；　one…and…twenty　pence　halfpenny　sterling；　was；　forty　or

fifty　years　ago；　the　ordinary　price　of　an　ox；　chosen　from　a　herd

of　two　or　three　hundred。　He　says　nothing　of　the　price　of　bread；

probably　because　he　found　nothing　remarkable　about　it。　An　ox

there；　he　says；　cost　little　more　than　the　labour　of　catching　him。

But　corn　can　nowhere　be　raised　without　a　great　deal　of　labour；

and　in　a　country　which　lies　upon　the　river　Plate；　at　that　time

the　direct　road　from　Europe　to　the　silver　mines　of　Potosi；　the

money　price　of　labour　could　not　be　very　cheap。　It　is　otherwise

when　cultivation　is　extended　over　the　greater　part　of　the

country。　There　is　then　more　bread　than　butcher's　meat。　The

competition　changes　its　direction；　and　the　price　of　butcher's

meat　becomes　greater　than　the　price　of　bread。

　　　　　By　the　extension　besides　of　cultivation；　the　unimproved

wilds　become　insufficient　to　supply　the　demand　for　butcher's

meat。　A　great　part　of　the　cultivated　lands　must　be　employed　in

rearing　and　fattening　cattle；　of　which　the　price；　therefore；　must

be　sufficient　to　pay；　not　only　the　labour　necessary　for　tending

them；　but　the　rent　which　the　landlord　and　the　profit　which　the

farmer　could　have　drawn　from　such　land　employed　in　tillage。　The

cattle　bred　upon　the　most　uncultivated　moors；　when　brought　to　the

same　market；　are；　in　proportion　to　their　weight　or　goodness；　sold

at　the　same　price　as　those　which　are　reared　upon　the　most

improved　land。　The　proprietors　of　those　moors　profit　by　it；　and

raise　the　rent　of　their　land　in　proportion　to　the　price　of　their

cattle。　It　is　not　more　than　a　century　ago　that　in　many　parts　of

the　highlands　of　Scotland；　butcher's　meat　was　as　cheap　or　cheaper

than　even　bread　made　of　oatmeal。　The　union　opened　the　market　of

England　to　the　highland　cattle。　Their　ordinary　price　is　at

present　about　three　times　greater　than　at　the　beginning　of　the

century；　and　the　rents　of　many　highland　estates　have　been　tripled

and　quadrupled　in　the　same　time。　In　almost　every　part　of　Great

Britain　a　pound　of　the　best　butcher's　meat　is；　in　the　present

times；　generally　worth　more　than　two　pounds　of　the　best　white

bread；　and　in　plentiful　years　it　is　sometimes　worth　three　or　four

pounds。

　　　　　It　is　thus　that　in　the　progress　of　improvement　the　rent　and

profit　of　unimproved　pasture　come　to　be　regulated　in　some　measure

by　the　rent　and　profit　of　what　is　improved；　and　these　again　by

the　rent　and　profit　of　corn。　Corn　is　an　annual　crop。　Butcher's

meat；　a　crop　which　requires　four　or　five　years　to　grow。　As　an

acre　of　land；　therefore；　will　produce　a　much　smaller　quantity　of

the　one　species　of　food　than　of　the　other；　the　inferiority　of　the

quantity　must　be　compensated　by　the　superiority　of　the　price。　If

it　was　more　than　compensated；　more　corn　land　would　be　turned　into

pasture；　and　if　it　was　not　compensated；　part　of　what　was　in

pasture　would　be　brought　back　into　corn。

　　　　　This　equality；　however；　between　the　rent　and　profit　of　grass

and　those　of　corn；　of　the　land　of　which　the　immediate　produce　is

food　for　cattle；　and　of　that　of　which　the　immediate　produce　is

food　for　men；　must　be　understood　to　take　place　only