wealbk01-第7章

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produce　of　his　own　labour；　which　is　over　and　above　his　own

consumption；　for　such　parts　of　the　produce　of　other　men's　labour

as　he　has　occasion　for。　Every　man　thus　lives　by　exchanging；　or

becomes　in　some　measure　a　merchant；　and　the　society　itself　grows

to　be　what　is　properly　a　commercial　society。

　　　　　But　when　the　division　of　labour　first　began　to　take　place；

this　power　of　exchanging　must　frequently　have　been　very　much

clogged　and　embarrassed　in　its　operations。　One　man；　we　shall

suppose；　has　more　of　a　certain　commodity　than　he　himself　has

occasion　for；　while　another　has　less。　The　former　consequently

would　be　glad　to　dispose　of；　and　the　latter　to　purchase；　a　part

of　this　superfluity。　But　if　this　latter　should　chance　to　have

nothing　that　the　former　stands　in　need　of；　no　exchange　can　be

made　between　them。　The　butcher　has　more　meat　in　his　shop　than　he

himself　can　consume；　and　the　brewer　and　the　baker　would　each　of

them　be　willing　to　purchase　a　part　of　it。　But　they　have　nothing

to　offer　in　exchange；　except　the　different　productions　of　their

respective　trades；　and　the　butcher　is　already　provided　with　all

the　bread　and　beer　which　he　has　immediate　occasion　for。　No

exchange　can；　in　this　case；　be　made　between　them。　He　cannot　be

their　merchant；　nor　they　his　customers；　and　they　are　all　of　them

thus　mutually　less　serviceable　to　one　another。　In　order　to　avoid

the　inconveniency　of　such　situations；　every　prudent　man　in　every

period　of　society；　after　the　first　establishment　of　the　division

of　labour；　must　naturally　have　endeavoured　to　manage　his　affairs

in　such　a　manner　as　to　have　at　alltimes　by　him；　besides　the

peculiar　produce　of　his　own　industry；　a　certain　quantity　of　some

one　commodity　or　other；　such　as　he　imagined　few　people　would　be

likely　to　refuse　in　exchange　for　the　produce　of　their　industry。

　　　　　Many　different　commodities；　it　is　probable；　were

successively　both　thought　of　and　employed　for　this　purpose。　In

the　rude　ages　of　society；　cattle　are　said　to　have　been　the　common

instrument　of　commerce；　and；　though　they　must　have　been　a　most

inconvenient　one；　yet　in　old　times　we　find　things　were　frequently

valued　according　to　the　number　of　cattle　which　had　been　given　in

exchange　for　them。　The　armour　of　Diomede；　says　Homer；　cost　only

nine　oxen；　but　that　of　Glaucus　cost　an　hundred　oxen。　Salt　is　said

to　be　the　common　instrument　of　commerce　and　exchanges　in

Abyssinia；　a　species　of　shells　in　some　parts　of　the　coast　of

India；　dried　cod　at　Newfoundland；　tobacco　in　Virginia；　sugar　in

some　of　our　West　India　colonies；　hides　or　dressed　leather　in　some

other　countries；　and　there　is　at　this　day　a　village　in　Scotland

where　it　is　not　uncommon；　I　am　told；　for　a　workman　to　carry　nails

instead　of　money　to　the　baker's　shop　or　the　alehouse。

　　　　　In　all　countries；　however；　men　seem　at　last　to　have　been

determined　by　irresistible　reasons　to　give　the　preference；　for

this　employment；　to　metals　above　every　other　commodity。　Metals

can　not　only　be　kept　with　as　little　loss　as　any　other　commodity；

scarce　anything　being　less　perishable　than　they　are；　but　they　can

likewise；　without　any　loss；　be　divided　into　any　number　of　parts；

as　by　fusion　those　parts　can　easily　be　reunited　again；　a　quality

which　no　other　equally　durable　commodities　possess；　and　which

more　than　any　other　quality　renders　them　fit　to　be　the

instruments　of　commerce　and　circulation。　The　man　who　wanted　to

buy　salt；　for　example；　and　had　nothing　but　cattle　to　give　in

exchange　for　it；　must　have　been　obliged　to　buy　salt　to　the　value

of　a　whole　ox；　or　a　whole　sheep　at　a　time。　He　could　seldom　buy

less　than　this；　because　what　he　was　to　give　for　it　could　seldom

be　divided　without　loss；　and　if　he　had　a　mind　to　buy　more；　he

must；　for　the　same　reasons；　have　been　obliged　to　buy　double　or

triple　the　quantity；　the　value；　to　wit；　of　two　or　three　oxen；　or

of　two　or　three　sheep。　If；　on　the　contrary；　instead　of　sheep　or

oxen；　he　had　metals　to　give　in　exchange　for　it；　he　could　easily

proportion　the　quantity　of　the　metal　to　the　precise　quantity　of

the　commodity　which　he　had　immediate　occasion　for。

　　　　　Different　metals　have　been　made　use　of　by　different　nations

for　this　purpose。　Iron　was　the　common　instrument　of　commerce

among　the　ancient　Spartans；　copper　among　the　ancient　Romans；　and

gold　and　silver　among　all　rich　and　commercial　nations。

　　　　　Those　metals　seem　originally　to　have　been　made　use　of　for

this　purpose　in　rude　bars；　without　any　stamp　or　coinage。　Thus　we

are　told　by　Pliny；　upon　the　authority　of　Timaeus；　an　ancient

historian；　that；　till　the　time　of　Servius　Tullius；　the　Romans　had

no　coined　money；　but　made　use　of　unstamped　bars　of　copper；　to

purchase　whatever　they　had　occasion　for。　These　bars；　therefore；

performed　at　this　time　the　function　of　money。

　　　　　The　use　of　metals　in　this　rude　state　was　attended　with　two

very　considerable　inconveniencies；　first；　with　the　trouble　of

weighing；　and；　secondly；　with　that　of　assaying　them。　In　the

precious　metals；　where　a　small　difference　in　the　quantity　makes　a

great　difference　in　the　value；　even　the　business　of　weighing；

with　proper　exactness；　requires　at　least　very　accurate　weights

and　scales。　The　weighing　of　gold　in　particular　is　an　operation　of

some　nicety。　In　the　coarser　metals；　indeed；　where　a　small　error

would　be　of　little　consequence；　less　accuracy　would；　no　doubt；　be

necessary。　Yet　we　should　find　it　excessively　troublesome；　if

every　time　a　poor　man　had　occasion　either　to　buy　or　sell　a

farthing's　worth　of　goods；　he　was　obliged　to　weigh　the　farthing。

The　operation　of　assaying　is　still　more　difficult；　still　more

tedious；　and；　unless　a　part　of　the　metal　is　fairly　melted　in　the

crucible；　with　proper　dissolvents；　any　conclusion　that　can　be

drawn　from　it；　is　extremely　uncertain。　Before　the　institution　of

coined　money；　however；　unless　they　went　through　this　tedious　and

difficult　operation；　people　must　always　have　been　liable　to　the

grossest　frauds　and　impositions；　and　instead　of　a　pound　weight　of

pure　silver；　or　pure　copper；　might　receive　in　exchange　for　their

goods　an　adulterated　composition　of　the　coarsest　and　cheapest

materials；　which　had；　however；　in　their　outward　appearance；　been

made　to　resemble　those　metals。　To　prevent　such　abuses；　to

facilitate　exchanges；　and　thereby　to　encourage　all　sorts　of

industry　and　commerce；　it　has　been　found　necessary；　in　all

countries　that　have　made　any　considerable　advances　towards

improvement；　to　affix　a　public　stamp　upon　certain　quantities　of

such　particular　metals　as　were　in　those　countries　commonly　made

use　of　to　purchase　goods。　Hence　the　origin　of　coined　money；　and

of　those　public　offices　called　mints；　institutions　exactly　of　the

same　nature　with　those　of　the　aulnagers　and　stamp…masters　of

woolen　and　linen　cloth。　All　of　them　are　equally　meant　to

ascertain；　by　means　of　a　public　stamp；　the　quantity　and　uniform

goodness　of　those　different　commodities　when　brought　to　market。

　　　　　The　first　public　stamps　of　this　kind　that　were　affixed　to

the　current　metals；　seem　in　many　cases　to　have　been　intended　to

ascertain；　what　it　was　both　most　difficult　and　most　important　to

ascertain；　the　goodness　or　fineness　of　the　metal；　and　to　have

resembled　the　sterling　mark　which　is　at　present　affixed　to　plate

and　bars　of　silver；　or　the　Spanish　mark　which　is　sometimes

affixed　to　ingots　of　gold；　and　which　being　struck　only　upon　one

side　of　the　piece；　and　not　covering　the　whole　surface；　ascertains

the　fineness；　but　not　the　weight　of　the　metal。　Abraham　weighs　to

Ephron　the　four　hundred　shekels　of　silver　which　he　had　agreed　to

pay　for　the　field　of　Machpelah。　They　are　said；　however；　to　be　the

current　money　of　the　merchant；　and　yet　are　received　by　weight　and

not　by　tale；　in　the　same　manner　as　ingots　of　gold　and　bars　of

silver　are　at　present。　The　revenues　of　the　ancient　Saxon　kings　of

England　are　said　to　have　been　paid；　not　in　money　but　in　kind；

that　is；　in　victuals　and　provisions　of　all　sorts。　William　the

Conqueror