the crowd-第40章

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re　only　liable　to　have　disastrous　results　when　a　series　of　amendments　has　converted　them　into　the　outcome　of　a　collective　effort。　　The　work　of　a　crowd　is　always　inferior；　whatever　its　nature；　to　that　of　an　isolated　individual。　　It　is　specialists　who　safeguard　assemblies　from　passing　ill…advised　or　unworkable　measures。　　The　specialist　in　this　case　is　a　temporary　leader　of　crowds。　　The　Assembly　is　without　influence　on　him；　but　he　has　influence　over　the　Assembly。

In　spite　of　all　the　difficulties　attending　their　working；　parliamentary　assemblies　are　the　best　form　of　government　mankind　has　discovered　as　yet；　and　more　especially　the　best　means　it　has　found　to　escape　the　yoke　of　personal　tyrannies。　　They　constitute　assuredly　the　ideal　government　at　any　rate　for　philosophers；　thinkers；　writers；　artists；　and　learned　menin　a　word；　for　all　those　who　form　the　cream　of　a　civilisation。

Moreover；　in　reality　they　only　present　two　serious　dangers；　one　being　inevitable　financial　waste；　and　the　other　the　progressive　restriction　of　the　liberty　of　the　individual。

The　first　of　these　dangers　is　the　necessary　consequence　of　the　exigencies　and　want　of　foresight　of　electoral　crowds。　　Should　a　member　of　an　assembly　propose　a　measure　giving　apparent　satisfaction　to　democratic　ideas；　should　he　bring　in　a　Bill；　for　instance；　to　assure　old…age　pensions　to　all　workers；　and　to　increase　the　wages　of　any　class　of　State　employes；　the　other　Deputies；　victims　of　suggestion　in　their　dread　of　their　electors；　will　not　venture　to　seem　to　disregard　the　interests　of　the　latter　by　rejecting　the　proposed　measure；　although　well　aware　they　are　imposing　a　fresh　strain　on　the　Budget　and　necessitating　the　creation　of　new　taxes。　　It　is　impossible　for　them　to　hesitate　to　give　their　votes。　　The　consequences　of　the　increase　of　expenditure　are　remote　and　will　not　entail　disagreeable　consequences　for　them　personally；　while　the　consequences　of　a　negative　vote　might　clearly　come　to　light　when　they　next　present　themselves　for　re…election。

In　addition　to　this　first　cause　of　an　exaggerated　expenditure　there　is　another　not　less　imperativethe　necessity　of　voting　all　grants　for　local　purposes。　　A　Deputy　is　unable　to　oppose　grants　of　this　kind　because　they　represent　once　more　the　exigencies　of　the　electors；　and　because　each　individual　Deputy　can　only　obtain　what　he　requires　for　his　own　constituency　on　the　condition　of　acceding　to　similar　demands　on　the　part　of　his　colleagues。＇29＇


＇29＇　In　its　issue　of　April　6；　1895；　the　Economiste　published　a　curious　review　of　the　figures　that　may　be　reached　by　expenditure　caused　solely　by　electoral　considerations；　and　notably　of　the　outlay　on　railways。　　To　put　Langayes　（a　town　of　3；000　inhabitants；　situated　on　a　mountain）　in　communication　with　Puy；　a　railway　is　voted　that　will　cost　15　millions　of　francs。　　Seven　millions　are　to　be　spent　to　put　Beaumont　（3；500　inhabitants）　in　communication　with　Castel…Sarrazin；　7　millions　to　put　Oust　（a　village　of　523　inhabitants）　in　communication　with　Seix　（1；200　inhabitants）；　6　millions　to　put　Prade　in　communication　with　the　hamlet　of　Olette　（747　inhabitants）；　&c。　　In　1895　alone　90　millions　of　francs　were　voted　for　railways　of　only　local　utility。　There　is　other　no　less　important　expenditure　necessitated　also　by　electioneering　considerations。　　The　law　instituting　workingmen's　pensions　will　soon　involve　a　minimum　annual　outlay　of　165　millions；　according　to　the　Minister　of　Finance；　and　of　800　millions　according　to　the　academician　M。　Leroy…Beaulieu。　　It　is　evident　that　the　continued　growth　of　expenditure　of　this　kind　must　end　in　bankruptcy。　　Many　European　countriesPortugal；　Greece；　Spain；　Turkeyhave　reached　this　stage；　and　others；　such　as　Italy；　will　soon　be　reduced　to　the　same　extremity。　　Still　too　much　alarm　need　not　be　felt　at　this　state　of　things；　since　the　public　has　successively　consented　to　put　up　with　the　reduction　of　four…fifths　in　the　payment　of　their　coupons　by　these　different　countries。　　Bankruptcy　under　these　ingenious　conditions　allows　the　equilibrium　of　Budgets　difficult　to　balance　to　be　instantly　restored。　　Moreover；　wars；　socialism；　and　economic　conflicts　hold　in　store　for　us　a　profusion　of　other　catastrophes　in　the　period　of　universal　disintegration　we　are　traversing；　and　it　is　necessary　to　be　resigned　to　living　from　hand　to　mouth　without　too　much　concern　for　a　future　we　cannot　control。



The　second　of　the　dangers　referred　to　abovethe　inevitable　restrictions　on　liberty　consummated　by　parliamentary　assembliesis　apparently　less　obvious；　but　is；　nevertheless；　very　real。　　It　is　the　result　of　the　innumerable　lawshaving　always　a　restrictive　actionwhich　parliaments　consider　themselves　obliged　to　vote　and　to　whose　consequences；　owing　to　their　shortsightedness；　they　are　in　a　great　measure　blind。

The　danger　must　indeed　be　most　inevitable；　since　even　England　itself；　which　assuredly　offers　the　most　popular　type　of　the　parliamentary　regime；　the　type　in　which　the　representative　is　most　independent　of　his　elector；　has　been　unable　to　escape　it。　Herbert　Spencer　has　shown；　in　a　work　already　old；　that　the　increase　of　apparent　liberty　must　needs　be　followed　by　the　decrease　of　real　liberty。　　Returning　to　this　contention　in　his　recent　book；　〃The　Individual　versus　the　State；〃　he　thus　expresses　himself　with　regard　to　the　English　Parliament：


〃Legislation　since　this　period　has　followed　the　course；　I　pointed　out。　　Rapidly　multiplying　dictatorial　measures　have　continually　tended　to　restrict　individual　liberties；　and　this　in　two　ways。　Regulations　have　been　established　every　year　in　greater　number；　imposing　a　constraint　on　the　citizen　in　matters　in　which　his　acts　were　formerly　completely　free；　and　forcing　him　to　accomplish　acts　which　he　was　formerly　at　liberty　to　accomplish　or　not　to　accomplish　at　will。　　At　the　same　time　heavier　and　heavier　public；　and　especially　local；　burdens　have　still　further　restricted　his　liberty　by　diminishing　the　portion　of　his　profits　he　can　spend　as　he　chooses；　and　by　augmenting　the　portion　which　is　taken　from　him　to　be　spent　according　to　the　good　pleasure　of　the　public　authorities。〃


This　progressive　restriction　of　liberties　shows　itself　in　every　country　in　a　special　shape　which　Herbert　Spencer　has　not　pointed　out；　it　is　that　the　passing　of　these　innumerable　series　of　legislative　measures；　all　of　them　in　a　general　way　of　a　restrictive　order；　conduces　necessarily　to　augment　the　number；　the　power；　and　the　influence　of　the　functionaries　charged　with　their　application。　　These　functionaries　tend　in　this　way　to　become　the　veritable　masters　of　civilised　countries。　　Their　power　is　all　the　greater　owing　to　the　fact　that；　amidst　the　incessant　transfer　of　authority；　the　administrative　caste　is　alone　in　being　untouched　by　these　changes；　is　alone　in　possessing　irresponsibility；　impersonality；　and　perpetuity。　　There　is　no　more　oppressive　despotism　than　that　which　presents　itself　under　this　triple　form。

This　incessant　creation　of　restrictive　laws　and　regulations；　surrounding　the　pettiest　actions　of　existence　with　the　most　complicated　formalities；　inevitably　has　for　its　result　the　confining　within　narrower　and　narrower　limits　of　the　sphere　in　which　the　citizen　may　move　freely。　　Victims　of　the　delusion　that　equality　and　liberty　are　the　better　assured　by　the　multiplication　of　laws；　nations　daily　consent　to　put　up　with　trammels　increasingly　burdensome。　　They　do　not　accept　this　legislation　with　impunity。　　Accustomed　to　put　up　with　every　yoke；　they　soon　end　by　desiring　servitude；　and　lose　all　spontaneousness　and　energy。　　They　are　then　no　more　than　vain　shadows；　passive；　unresisting　and　powerless　automata。

Arrived　at　this　point；　the　individual　is　bound　to　seek　outside　himself　the　forces　he　no　longer　finds　within　him。　　The　functions　of　governments　necessarily　increase　in　proportion　as　the　indifference　and　helplessness　of　the　citizens　grow。　　They　it　is　who　must　necessarily　exhibit　the　initiative；　enterprising；　and　guiding　spirit　in　which　private　persons　are　lacking。　　It　falls　on　them　to　undertake　everything；　direct　everything；　and　take　everything　under　their　protection。　　The　State　becomes　an　all…powerful　god。　　Still　experience　shows　that　the　power　of　such　gods　was　never　either　very　durable　or　very　strong。