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                                PRIOR ANALYTICS



                                  by Aristotle



                         translated by A。 J。 Jenkinson



                              Book I



                                 1







  WE must first state the subject of our inquiry and the faculty to



which it belongs�此�its subject is demonstration and the faculty that



carries it out demonstrative science。 We must next define a premiss�察�a



term�察�and a syllogism�察�and the nature of a perfect and of an imperfect



syllogism�察�and after that�察�the inclusion or noninclusion of one term



in another as in a whole�察�and what we mean by predicating one term



of all�察�or none�察�of another。



  A premiss then is a sentence affirming or denying one thing of



another。 This is either universal or particular or indefinite。 By



universal I mean the statement that something belongs to all or none



of something else�察�by particular that it belongs to some or not to



some or not to all�察�by indefinite that it does or does not belong��



without any mark to show whether it is universal or particular�察�e。g。



'contraries are subjects of the same science'�察�or 'pleasure is not



good'。 The demonstrative premiss differs from the dialectical�察�because



the demonstrative premiss is the assertion of one of two contradictory



statements ��the demonstrator does not ask for his premiss�察�but lays it



down���察�whereas the dialectical premiss depends on the adversary's



choice between two contradictories。 But this will make no difference



to the production of a syllogism in either case�察�for both the



demonstrator and the dialectician argue syllogistically after



stating that something does or does not belong to something else。



Therefore a syllogistic premiss without qualification will be an



affirmation or denial of something concerning something else in the



way we have described�察�it will be demonstrative�察�if it is true and



obtained through the first principles of its science�察�while a



dialectical premiss is the giving of a choice between two



contradictories�察�when a man is proceeding by question�察�but when he



is syllogizing it is the assertion of that which is apparent and



generally admitted�察�as has been said in the Topics。 The nature then of



a premiss and the difference between syllogistic�察�demonstrative�察�and



dialectical premisses�察�may be taken as sufficiently defined by us in



relation to our present need�察�but will be stated accurately in the



sequel。



  I call that a term into which the premiss is resolved�察�i。e。 both the



predicate and that of which it is predicated�察�'being' being added



and 'not being' removed�察�or vice versa。



  A syllogism is discourse in which�察�certain things being stated��



something other than what is stated follows of necessity from their



being so。 I mean by the last phrase that they produce the consequence��



and by this�察�that no further term is required from without in order to



make the consequence necessary。



  I call that a perfect syllogism which needs nothing other than



what has been stated to make plain what necessarily follows�察�a



syllogism is imperfect�察�if it needs either one or more propositions��



which are indeed the necessary consequences of the terms set down�察�but



have not been expressly stated as premisses。



  That one term should be included in another as in a whole is the



same as for the other to be predicated of all of the first。 And we say



that one term is predicated of all of another�察�whenever no instance of



the subject can be found of which the other term cannot be asserted��



'to be predicated of none' must be understood in the same way。







                                 2







  Every premiss states that something either is or must be or may be



the attribute of something else�察�of premisses of these three kinds



some are affirmative�察�others negative�察�in respect of each of the three



modes of attribution�察�again some affirmative and negative premisses



are universal�察�others particular�察�others indefinite。 It is necessary



then that in universal attribution the terms of the negative premiss



should be convertible�察�e。g。 if no pleasure is good�察�then no good



will be pleasure�察�the terms of the affirmative must be convertible��



not however�察�universally�察�but in part�察�e。g。 if every pleasure��is good��



some good must be pleasure�察�the particular affirmative must convert in



part ��for if some pleasure is good�察�then some good will be



pleasure���察�but the particular negative need not convert�察�for if some



animal is not man�察�it does not follow that some man is not animal。



  First then take a universal negative with the terms A and B。 If no B



is A�察�neither can any A be B。 For if some A ��say C�� were B�察�it would



not be true that no B is A�察�for C is a B。 But if every B is A then



some A is B。 For if no A were B�察�then no B could be A。 But we



assumed that every B is A。 Similarly too�察�if the premiss is



particular。 For if some B is A�察�then some of the As must be B。 For



if none were�察�then no B would be A。 But if some B is not A�察�there is



no necessity that some of the As should not be B�察�e。g。 let B stand for



animal and A for man。 Not every animal is a man�察�but every man is an



animal。







                                 3







  The same manner of conversion will hold good also in respect of



necessary premisses。 The universal negative converts universally�察�each



of the affirmatives converts into a particular。 If it is necessary



that no B is A�察�it is necessary also that no A is B。 For if it is



possible that some A is B�察�it would be possible also that some B is A。



If all or some B is A of necessity�察�it is necessary also that some A



is B�此�for if there were no necessity�察�neither would some of the Bs



be A necessarily。 But the particular negative does not convert�察�for



the same reason which we have already stated。



  In respect of possible premisses�察�since possibility is used in



several senses ��for we say that what is necessary and what is not



necessary and what is potential is possible���察�affirmative statements



will all convert in a manner similar to those described。 For if it



is possible that all or some B is A�察�it will be possible that some A



is B。 For if that were not possible�察�then no B could possibly be A。



This has been already proved。 But in negative statements the case is



different。 Whatever is said to be possible�察�either because B



necessarily is A�察�or because B is not necessarily A�察�admits of



conversion like other negative statements�察�e。g。 if one should say��



it is possible that man is not horse�察�or that no garment is white。 For



in the former case the one term necessarily does not belong to the



other�察�in the latter there is no necessity that it should�此�and the



premiss converts like other negative statements。 For if it is possible



for no man to be a horse�察�it is also admissible for no horse to be a



man�察�and if it is admissible for no garment to be white�察�it is also



admissible for nothing white to be a garment。 For if any white thing



must be a garment�察�then some garment will necessarily be white。 This



has been already proved。 The particular negative also must be



treated like those dealt with above。 But if anything is said to be



possible because it is the general rule and natural ��and it is in this



way we define the possible���察�the negative premisses can no longer be



converted like the simple negatives�察�the universal negative premiss



does not convert�察�and the particular does。 This will be plain when



we speak about the possible。 At present we may take this much as clear



in addition to what has been said�此�the 

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