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cts　as　victims　only　such　wretches　as　would　be　put　to　death　at　any　rate。　Thus　the　killing　of　a　god　may　sometimes　come　to　be　confounded　with　the　execution　of　a　criminal。

If　we　ask　why　a　dying　god　should　be　chosen　to　take　upon　himself　and　carry　away　the　sins　and　sorrows　of　the　people；　it　may　be　suggested　that　in　the　practice　of　using　the　divinity　as　a　scapegoat　we　have　a　combination　of　two　customs　which　were　at　one　time　distinct　and　independent。　On　the　one　hand　we　have　seen　that　it　has　been　customary　to　kill　the　human　or　animal　god　in　order　to　save　his　divine　life　from　being　weakened　by　the　inroads　of　age。　On　the　other　hand　we　have　seen　that　it　has　been　customary　to　have　a　general　expulsion　of　evils　and　sins　once　a　year。　Now；　if　it　occurred　to　people　to　combine　these　two　customs；　the　result　would　be　the　employment　of　the　dying　god　as　a　scapegoat。　He　was　killed；　not　originally　to　take　away　sin；　but　to　save　the　divine　life　from　the　degeneracy　of　old　age；　but；　since　he　had　to　be　killed　at　any　rate；　people　may　have　thought　that　they　might　as　well　seize　the　opportunity　to　lay　upon　him　the　burden　of　their　sufferings　and　sins；　in　order　that　he　might　bear　it　away　with　him　to　the　unknown　world　beyond　the　grave。

The　use　of　the　divinity　as　a　scapegoat　clears　up　the　ambiguity　which；　as　we　saw；　appears　to　hang　about　the　European　folk…custom　of　carrying　out　Death。　Grounds　have　been　shown　for　believing　that　in　this　ceremony　the　so…called　Death　was　originally　the　spirit　of　vegetation；　who　was　annually　slain　in　spring；　in　order　that　he　might　come　to　life　again　with　all　the　vigour　of　youth。　But；　as　I　pointed　out；　there　are　certain　features　in　the　ceremony　which　are　not　explicable　on　this　hypothesis　alone。　Such　are　the　marks　of　joy　with　which　the　effigy　of　Death　is　carried　out　to　be　buried　or　burnt；　and　the　fear　and　abhorrence　of　it　manifested　by　the　bearers。　But　these　features　become　at　once　intelligible　if　we　suppose　that　the　Death　was　not　merely　the　dying　god　of　vegetation；　but　also　a　public　scapegoat；　upon　whom　were　laid　all　the　evils　that　had　afflicted　the　people　during　the　past　year。　Joy　on　such　an　occasion　is　natural　and　appropriate；　and　if　the　dying　god　appears　to　be　the　object　of　that　fear　and　abhorrence　which　are　properly　due　not　to　himself；　but　to　the　sins　and　misfortunes　with　which　he　is　laden；　this　arises　merely　from　the　difficulty　of　distinguishing；　or　at　least　of　marking　the　distinction；　between　the　bearer　and　the　burden。　When　the　burden　is　of　a　baleful　character；　the　bearer　of　it　will　be　feared　and　shunned　just　as　much　as　if　he　were　himself　instinct　with　those　dangerous　properties　of　which；　as　it　happens；　he　is　only　the　vehicle。　Similarly　we　have　seen　that　disease…laden　and　sin…laden　boats　are　dreaded　and　shunned　by　East　Indian　peoples。　Again；　the　view　that　in　these　popular　customs　the　Death　is　a　scapegoat　as　well　as　a　representative　of　the　divine　spirit　of　vegetation　derives　some　support　from　the　circumstance　that　its　expulsion　is　always　celebrated　in　spring　and　chiefly　by　Slavonic　peoples。　For　the　Slavonic　year　began　in　spring；　and　thus；　in　one　of　its　aspects；　the　ceremony　of　carrying　out　Death　would　be　an　example　of　the　widespread　custom　of　expelling　the　accumulated　evils　of　the　old　year　before　entering　on　a　new　one。

Chapter　58。　Human　Scapegoats　in　Classical　Antiquity。

1。　The　Human　Scapegoat　in　Ancient　Rome

WE　are　now　prepared　to　notice　the　use　of　the　human　scapegoat　in　classical　antiquity。　Every　year　on　the　fourteenth　of　March　a　man　clad　in　skins　was　led　in　procession　through　the　streets　of　Rome；　beaten　with　long　white　rods；　and　driven　out　of　the　city。　He　was　called　Mamurius　Veturius；　that　is；　the　old　Mars；　and　as　the　ceremony　took　place　on　the　day　preceding　the　first　full　moon　of　the　old　Roman　year　（which　began　on　the　first　of　March）；　the　skin…clad　man　must　have　represented　the　Mars　of　the　past　year；　who　was　driven　out　at　the　beginning　of　a　new　one。　Now　Mars　was　originally　not　a　god　of　war　but　of　vegetation。　For　it　was　to　Mars　that　the　Roman　husbandman　prayed　for　the　prosperity　of　his　corn　and　his　vines；　his　fruit…trees　and　his　copses；　it　was　to　Mars　that　the　priestly　college　of　the　Arval　Brothers；　whose　business　it　was　to　sacrifice　for　the　growth　of　the　crops；　addressed　their　petitions　almost　exclusively；　and　it　was　to　Mars；　as　we　saw；　that　a　horse　was　sacrificed　in　October　to　secure　an　abundant　harvest。　Moreover；　it　was　to　Mars；　under　his　title　of　Mars　of　the　woods　（Mars　Silvanus）；　that　farmers　offered　sacrifice　for　the　welfare　of　their　cattle。　We　have　already　seen　that　cattle　are　commonly　supposed　to　be　under　the　special　patronage　of　tree…gods。　Once　more；　the　consecration　of　the　vernal　month　of　March　to　Mars　seems　to　point　him　out　as　the　deity　of　the　sprouting　vegetation。　Thus　the　Roman　custom　of　expelling　the　old　Mars　at　the　beginning　of　the　new　year　in　spring　is　identical　with　the　Slavonic　custom　of　carrying　out　Death；　if　the　view　here　taken　of　the　latter　custom　is　correct。　The　similarity　of　the　Roman　and　Slavonic　customs　has　been　already　remarked　by　scholars；　who　appear；　however；　to　have　taken　Mamurius　Veturius　and　the　corresponding　figures　in　the　Slavonic　ceremonies　to　be　representatives　of　the　old　year　rather　than　of　the　old　god　of　vegetation。　It　is　possible　that　ceremonies　of　this　kind　may　have　come　to　be　thus　interpreted　in　later　times　even　by　the　people　who　practised　them。　But　the　personification　of　a　period　of　time　is　too　abstract　an　idea　to　be　primitive。　However；　in　the　Roman；　as　in　the　Slavonic；　ceremony；　the　representative　of　the　god　appears　to　have　been　treated　not　only　as　a　deity　of　vegetation　but　also　as　a　scapegoat。　His　expulsion　implies　this；　for　there　is　no　reason　why　the　god　of　vegetation；　as　such；　should　be　expelled　the　city。　But　it　is　otherwise　if　he　is　also　a　scapegoat；　it　then　becomes　necessary　to　drive　him　beyond　the　boundaries；　that　he　may　carry　his　sorrowful　burden　away　to　other　lands。　And；　in　fact；　Mamurius　Veturius　appears　to　have　been　driven　away　to　the　land　of　the　Oscans；　the　enemies　of　Rome。

2。　The　Human　Scapegoat　in　Ancient　Greece

THE　ANCIENT　Greeks　were　also　familiar　with　the　use　of　a　human　scapegoat。　In　Plutarch's　native　town　of　Chaeronea　a　ceremony　of　this　kind　was　performed　by　the　chief　magistrate　at　the　Town　Hall；　and　by　each　householder　at　his　own　home。　It　was　called　the　expulsion　of　hunger。　A　slave　was　beaten　with　rods　of　the　agnus　castus；　and　turned　out　of　doors　with　the　words；　Out　with　hunger；　and　in　with　wealth　and　health。　When　Plutarch　held　the　office　of　chief　magistrate　of　his　native　town　he　performed　this　ceremony　at　the　Town　Hall；　and　he　has　recorded　the　discussion　to　which　the　custom　afterwards　gave　rise。

But　in　civilised　Greece　the　custom　of　the　scapegoat　took　darker　forms　than　the　innocent　rite　over　which　the　amiable　and　pious　Plutarch　presided。　Whenever　Marseilles；　one　of　the　busiest　and　most　brilliant　of　Greek　colonies；　was　ravaged　by　a　plague；　a　man　of　the　poorer　classes　used　to　offer　himself　as　a　scapegoat。　For　a　whole　year　he　was　maintained　at　the　public　expense；　being　fed　on　choice　and　pure　food。　At　the　expiry　of　the　year　he　was　dressed　in　sacred　garments；　decked　with　holy　branches；　and　led　through　the　whole　city；　while　prayers　were　uttered　that　all　the　evils　of　the　people　might　fall　on　his　head。　He　was　then　cast　out　of　the　city　or　stoned　to　death　by　the　people　outside　of　the　walls。　The　Athenians　regularly　maintained　a　number　of　degraded　and　useless　beings　at　the　public　expense；　and　when　any　calamity；　such　as　plague；　drought；　or　famine；　befell　the　city；　they　sacrificed　two　of　these　outcast　scapegoats。　One　of　the　victims　was　sacrificed　for　the　men　and　the　other　for　the　women。　The　former　wore　round　his　neck　a　string　of　black；　the　latter　a　string　of　white　figs。　Sometimes；　it　seems；　the　victim　slain　on　behalf　of　the　women　was　a　woman。　They　were　led　about　the　city　and　then　sacrificed；　apparently　by　being　stoned　to　death　outside　the　city。　But　such　sacrifices　were　not　confined　to　extraordinary　occasions　of　public　calamity；　it　appears　that　every　year；　at　the　festival　of　the　Thargelia　in　May；　two　victims；　one　for　the　men　and　one　for　the　women；　were　led　out　of　Athens　and　stoned　to　death。　The　city　of　Abdera　in　Thrace　was　publicly　purified　once　a　year；　and　one　of　the