the golden bough-第255章

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；　the　two　broken　and　dissevered　halves　of　an　original　whole。　In　other　words；　we　may　assume　with　some　degree　of　probability　that　the　myth　of　Balder's　death　was　not　merely　a　myth；　that　is；　a　description　of　physical　phenomena　in　imagery　borrowed　from　human　life；　but　that　it　was　at　the　same　time　the　story　which　people　told　to　explain　why　they　annually　burned　a　human　representative　of　the　god　and　cut　the　mistletoe　with　solemn　ceremony。　If　I　am　right；　the　story　of　Balder's　tragic　end　formed；　so　to　say；　the　text　of　the　sacred　drama　which　was　acted　year　by　year　as　a　magical　rite　to　cause　the　sun　to　shine；　trees　to　grow；　crops　to　thrive；　and　to　guard　man　and　beast　from　the　baleful　arts　of　fairies　and　trolls；　of　witches　and　warlocks。　The　tale　belonged；　in　short；　to　that　class　of　nature　myths　which　are　meant　to　be　supplemented　by　ritual；　here；　as　so　often；　myth　stood　to　magic　in　the　relation　of　theory　to　practice。

But　if　the　victimsthe　human　Balderswho　died　by　fire；　whether　in　spring　or　at　midsummer；　were　put　to　death　as　living　embodiments　of　tree…spirits　or　deities　of　vegetation；　it　would　seem　that　Balder　himself　must　have　been　a　tree…spirit　or　deity　of　vegetation。　It　becomes　desirable；　therefore；　to　determine；　if　we　can；　the　particular　kind　of　tree　or　trees；　of　which　a　personal　representative　was　burned　at　the　fire…festivals。　For　we　may　be　quite　sure　that　it　was　not　as　a　representative　of　vegetation　in　general　that　the　victim　suffered　death。　The　idea　of　vegetation　in　general　is　too　abstract　to　be　primitive。　Most　probably　the　victim　at　first　represented　a　particular　kind　of　sacred　tree。　But　of　all　European　trees　none　has　such　claims　as　the　oak　to　be　considered　as　pre…eminently　the　sacred　tree　of　the　Aryans。　We　have　seen　that　its　worship　is　attested　for　all　the　great　branches　of　the　Aryan　stock　in　Europe；　hence　we　may　certainly　conclude　that　the　tree　was　venerated　by　the　Aryans　in　common　before　the　dispersion；　and　that　their　primitive　home　must　have　lain　in　a　land　which　was　clothed　with　forests　of　oak。

Now；　considering　the　primitive　character　and　remarkable　similarity　of　the　fire…festivals　observed　by　all　the　branches　of　the　Aryan　race　in　Europe；　we　may　infer　that　these　festivals　form　part　of　the　common　stock　of　religious　observances　which　the　various　peoples　carried　with　them　in　their　wanderings　from　their　old　home。　But；　if　I　am　right；　an　essential　feature　of　those　primitive　fire…festivals　was　the　burning　of　a　man　who　represented　the　tree…spirit。　In　view；　then；　of　the　place　occupied　by　the　oak　in　the　religion　of　the　Aryans；　the　presumption　is　that　the　tree　so　represented　at　the　fire…festivals　must　originally　have　been　the　oak。　So　far　as　the　Celts　and　Lithuanians　are　concerned；　this　conclusion　will　perhaps　hardly　be　contested。　But　both　for　them　and　for　the　Germans　it　is　confirmed　by　a　remarkable　piece　of　religious　conservatism。　The　most　primitive　method　known　to　man　of　producing　fire　is　by　rubbing　two　pieces　of　wood　against　each　other　till　they　ignite；　and　we　have　seen　that　this　method　is　still　used　in　Europe　for　kindling　sacred　fires　such　as　the　need…fire；　and　that　most　probably　it　was　formerly　resorted　to　at　all　the　fire…festivals　under　discussion。　Now　it　is　sometimes　required　that　the　need…fire；　or　other　sacred　fire；　should　be　made　by　the　friction　of　a　particular　kind　of　wood；　and　when　the　kind　of　wood　is　prescribed；　whether　among　Celts；　Germans；　or　Slavs；　that　wood　appears　to　be　generally　the　oak。　But　if　the　sacred　fire　was　regularly　kindled　by　the　friction　of　oak…wood；　we　may　infer　that　originally　the　fire　was　also　fed　with　the　same　material。　In　point　of　fact；　it　appears　that　the　perpetual　fire　of　Vesta　at　Rome　was　fed　with　oak…wood；　and　that　oak…wood　was　the　fuel　consumed　in　the　perpetual　fire　which　burned　under　the　sacred　oak　at　the　great　Lithuanian　sanctuary　of　Romove。　Further；　that　oak…wood　was　formerly　the　fuel　burned　in　the　midsummer　fires　may　perhaps　be　inferred　from　the　custom；　said　to　be　still　observed　by　peasants　in　many　mountain　districts　of　Germany；　of　making　up　the　cottage　fire　on　Midsummer　Day　with　a　heavy　block　of　oak…wood。　The　block　is　so　arranged　that　it　smoulders　slowly　and　is　not　finally　reduced　to　charcoal　till　the　expiry　of　a　year。　Then　upon　next　Midsummer　Day　the　charred　embers　of　the　old　log　are　removed　to　make　room　for　the　new　one；　and　are　mixed　with　the　seed…corn　or　scattered　about　the　garden。　This　is　believed　to　guard　the　food　cooked　on　the　hearth　from　witchcraft；　to　preserve　the　luck　of　the　house；　to　promote　the　growth　of　the　crops；　and　to　keep　them　from　blight　and　vermin。　Thus　the　custom　is　almost　exactly　parallel　to　that　of　the　Yule…log；　which　in　parts　of　Germany；　France；　England；　Serbia；　and　other　Slavonic　lands　was　commonly　of　oak…wood。　The　general　conclusion　is；　that　at　those　periodic　or　occasional　ceremonies　the　ancient　Aryans　both　kindled　and　fed　the　fire　with　the　sacred　oak…wood。

But　if　at　these　solemn　rites　the　fire　was　regularly　made　of　oakwood；　it　follows　that　any　man　who　was　burned　in　it　as　a　personification　of　the　tree…spirit　could　have　represented　no　tree　but　the　oak。　The　sacred　oak　was　thus　burned　in　duplicate；　the　wood　of　the　tree　was　consumed　in　the　fire；　and　along　with　it　was　consumed　a　living　man　as　a　personification　of　the　oak…spirit。　The　conclusion　thus　drawn　for　the　European　Aryans　in　general　is　confirmed　in　its　special　application　to　the　Scandinavians　by　the　relation　in　which　amongst　them　the　mistletoe　appears　to　have　stood　to　the　burning　of　the　victim　in　the　midsummer　fire。　We　have　seen　that　among　Scandinavians　it　has　been　customary　to　gather　the　mistletoe　at　midsummer。　But　so　far　as　appears　on　the　face　of　this　custom；　there　is　nothing　to　connect　it　with　the　midsummer　fires　in　which　human　victims　or　effigies　of　them　were　burned。　Even　if　the　fire；　as　seems　probable；　was　originally　always　made　with　oak…wood；　why　should　it　have　been　necessary　to　pull　the　mistletoe？　The　last　link　between　the　midsummer　customs　of　gathering　the　mistletoe　and　lighting　the　bonfires　is　supplied　by　Balder's　myth；　which　can　hardly　be　disjoined　from　the　customs　in　question。　The　myth　suggests　that　a　vital　connexion　may　once　have　been　believed　to　subsist　between　the　mistletoe　and　the　human　representative　of　the　oak　who　was　burned　in　the　fire。　According　to　the　myth；　Balder　could　be　killed　by　nothing　in　heaven　or　earth　except　the　mistletoe；　and　so　long　as　the　mistletoe　remained　on　the　oak；　he　was　not　only　immortal　but　invulnerable。　Now；　if　we　suppose　that　Balder　was　the　oak；　the　origin　of　the　myth　becomes　intelligible。　The　mistletoe　was　viewed　as　the　seat　of　life　of　the　oak；　and　so　long　as　it　was　uninjured　nothing　could　kill　or　even　wound　the　oak。　The　conception　of　the　mistletoe　as　the　seat　of　life　of　the　oak　would　naturally　be　suggested　to　primitive　people　by　the　observation　that　while　the　oak　is　deciduous；　the　mistletoe　which　grows　on　it　is　evergreen。　In　winter　the　sight　of　its　fresh　foliage　among　the　bare　branches　must　have　been　hailed　by　the　worshippers　of　the　tree　as　a　sign　that　the　divine　life　which　had　ceased　to　animate　the　branches　yet　survived　in　the　mistletoe；　as　the　heart　of　a　sleeper　still　beats　when　his　body　is　motionless。　Hence　when　the　god　had　to　be　killedwhen　the　sacred　tree　had　to　be　burntit　was　necessary　to　begin　by　breaking　off　the　mistletoe。　For　so　long　as　the　mistletoe　remained　intact；　the　oak　（so　people　might　think）　was　invulnerable；　all　the　blows　of　their　knives　and　axes　would　glance　harmless　from　its　surface。　But　once　tear　from　the　oak　its　sacred　heartthe　mistletoeand　the　tree　nodded　to　its　fall。　And　when　in　later　times　the　spirit　of　the　oak　came　to　be　represented　by　a　living　man；　it　was　logically　necessary　to　suppose　that；　like　the　tree　he　personated；　he　could　neither　be　killed　nor　wounded　so　long　as　the　mistletoe　remained　uninjured。　The　pulling　of　the　mistletoe　was　thus　at　once　the　signal　and　the　cause　of　his　death。

On　this　view　the　invulnerable　Balder　is　neither　more　nor　less　than　a　personification　of　a　mistletoe…bearing　oak。　The　interpretation　is　confirmed　by　what　seems　to　have　been　an　ancient　Italian　belief；　that　the　mistletoe　can　be　destroyed　neither　by　fire　nor　water；　for　if　the　parasite　is　thus　deemed　indestructible；　it　might　easily　be　supposed　to　communicate　its　own　indestructib