the golden bough-第38章

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els　himself　to　be　so　frail　and　slight；　how　vast　and　powerful　must　he　deem　the　beings　who　control　the　gigantic　machinery　of　nature！　Thus　as　his　old　sense　of　equality　with　the　gods　slowly　vanishes；　he　resigns　at　the　same　time　the　hope　of　directing　the　course　of　nature　by　his　own　unaided　resources；　that　is；　by　magic；　and　looks　more　and　more　to　the　gods　as　the　sole　repositories　of　those　supernatural　powers　which　he　once　claimed　to　share　with　them。　With　the　advance　of　knowledge；　therefore；　prayer　and　sacrifice　assume　the　leading　place　in　religious　ritual；　and　magic；　which　once　ranked　with　them　as　a　legitimate　equal；　is　gradually　relegated　to　the　background　and　sinks　to　the　level　of　a　black　art。　It　is　not　regarded　as　an　encroachment；　at　once　vain　and　impious；　on　the　domain　of　the　gods；　and　as　such　encounters　the　steady　opposition　of　the　priests；　whose　reputation　and　influence　rise　or　fall　with　those　of　their　gods。　Hence；　when　at　a　late　period　the　distinction　between　religion　and　superstition　has　emerged；　we　find　that　sacrifice　and　prayer　are　the　resource　of　the　pious　and　enlightened　portion　of　the　community；　while　magic　is　the　refuge　of　the　superstitious　and　ignorant。　But　when；　still　later；　the　conception　of　the　elemental　forces　as　personal　agents　is　giving　way　to　the　recognition　of　natural　law；　then　magic；　based　as　it　implicitly　is　on　the　idea　of　a　necessary　and　invariable　sequence　of　cause　and　effect；　independent　of　personal　will；　reappears　from　the　obscurity　and　discredit　into　which　it　had　fallen；　and　by　investigating　the　causal　sequences　in　nature；　directly　prepares　the　way　for　science。　Alchemy　leads　up　to　chemistry。

The　notion　of　a　man…god；　or　of　a　human　being　endowed　with　divine　or　supernatural　powers；　belongs　essentially　to　that　earlier　period　of　religious　history　in　which　gods　and　men　are　still　viewed　as　beings　of　much　the　same　order；　and　before　they　are　divided　by　the　impassable　gulf　which；　to　later　thought；　opens　out　between　them。　Strange；　therefore；　as　may　seem　to　us　the　idea　of　a　god　incarnate　in　human　form；　it　has　nothing　very　startling　for　early　man；　who　sees　in　a　man…god　or　a　god…man　only　a　higher　degree　of　the　same　supernatural　powers　which　he　arrogates　in　perfect　good　faith　to　himself。　Nor　does　he　draw　any　very　sharp　distinction　between　a　god　and　a　powerful　sorcerer。　His　gods　are　often　merely　invisible　magicians　who　behind　the　veil　of　nature　work　the　same　sort　of　charms　and　incantations　which　the　human　magician　works　in　a　visible　and　bodily　form　among　his　fellows。　And　as　the　gods　are　commonly　believed　to　exhibit　themselves　in　the　likeness　of　men　to　their　worshippers；　it　is　easy　for　the　magician；　with　his　supposed　miraculous　powers；　to　acquire　the　reputation　of　being　an　incarnate　deity。　Thus　beginning　as　little　more　than　a　simple　conjurer；　the　medicine…man　or　magician　tends　to　blossom　out　into　a　full…blown　god　and　king　in　one。　Only　in　speaking　of　him　as　a　god　we　must　beware　of　importing　into　the　savage　conception　of　deity　those　very　abstract　and　complex　ideas　which　we　attach　to　the　term。　Our　ideas　on　this　profound　subject　are　the　fruit　of　a　long　intellectual　and　moral　evolution；　and　they　are　so　far　from　being　shared　by　the　savage　that　he　cannot　even　understand　them　when　they　are　explained　to　him。　Much　of　the　controversy　which　has　raged　as　to　the　religion　of　the　lower　races　has　sprung　merely　from　a　mutual　misunderstanding。　The　savage　does　not　understand　the　thoughts　of　the　civilised　man；　and　few　civilised　men　understand　the　thoughts　of　the　savage。　When　the　savage　uses　his　word　for　god；　he　has　in　his　mind　a　being　of　a　certain　sort：　when　the　civilised　man　uses　his　word　for　god；　he　has　in　his　mind　a　being　of　a　very　different　sort；　and　if；　as　commonly　happens；　the　two　men　are　equally　unable　to　place　themselves　at　the　other's　point　of　view；　nothing　but　confusion　and　mistakes　can　result　from　their　discussions。　If　we　civilised　men　insist　on　limiting　the　name　of　God　to　that　particular　conception　of　the　divine　nature　which　we　ourselves　have　formed；　then　we　must　confess　that　the　savage　has　no　god　at　all。　But　we　shall　adhere　more　closely　to　the　facts　of　history　if　we　allow　most　of　the　higher　savages　at　least　to　possess　a　rudimentary　notion　of　certain　supernatural　beings　who　may　fittingly　be　called　gods；　though　not　in　the　full　sense　in　which　we　use　the　word。　That　rudimentary　notion　represents　in　all　probability　the　germ　out　of　which　the　civilised　peoples　have　gradually　evolved　their　own　high　conceptions　of　deity；　and　if　we　could　trace　the　whole　course　of　religious　development；　we　might　find　that　the　chain　which　links　our　idea　of　the　Godhead　with　that　of　the　savage　is　one　and　unbroken。

With　these　explanations　and　cautions　I　will　now　adduce　some　examples　of　gods　who　have　been　believed　by　their　worshippers　to　be　incarnate　in　living　human　beings；　whether　men　or　women。　The　persons　in　whom　a　deity　is　thought　to　reveal　himself　are　by　no　means　always　kings　or　descendants　of　kings；　the　supposed　incarnation　may　take　place　even　in　men　of　the　humblest　rank。　In　India；　for　example；　one　human　god　started　in　life　as　a　cotton…bleacher　and　another　as　the　son　of　a　carpenter。　I　shall　therefore　not　draw　my　examples　exclusively　from　royal　personages；　as　I　wish　to　illustrate　the　general　principle　of　the　deification　of　living　men；　in　other　words；　the　incarnation　of　a　deity　in　human　form。　Such　incarnate　gods　are　common　in　rude　society。　The　incarnation　may　be　temporary　or　permanent。　In　the　former　case；　the　incarnationcommonly　known　as　inspiration　or　possessionreveals　itself　in　supernatural　knowledge　rather　than　in　supernatural　power。　In　other　words；　its　usual　manifestations　are　divination　and　prophecy　rather　than　miracles。　On　the　other　hand；　when　the　incarnation　is　not　merely　temporary；　when　the　divine　spirit　has　permanently　taken　up　its　abode　in　a　human　body；　the　god…man　is　usually　expected　to　vindicate　his　character　by　working　miracles。　Only　we　have　to　remember　that　by　men　at　this　stage　of　thought　miracles　are　not　considered　as　breaches　of　natural　law。　Not　conceiving　the　existence　of　natural　law；　primitive　man　cannot　conceive　a　breach　of　it。　A　miracle　is　to　him　merely　an　unusually　striking　manifestation　of　a　common　power。

The　belief　in　temporary　incarnation　or　inspiration　is　world…wide。　Certain　persons　are　supposed　to　be　possessed　from　time　to　time　by　a　spirit　or　deity；　while　the　possession　lasts；　their　own　personality　lies　in　abeyance；　the　presence　of　the　spirit　is　revealed　by　convulsive　shiverings　and　shakings　of　the　man's　whole　body；　by　wild　gestures　and　excited　looks；　all　of　which　are　referred；　not　to　the　man　himself；　but　to　the　spirit　which　has　entered　into　him；　and　in　this　abnormal　state　all　his　utterances　are　accepted　as　the　voice　of　the　god　or　spirit　dwelling　in　him　and　speaking　through　him。　Thus；　for　example；　in　the　Sandwich　Islands；　the　king；　personating　the　god；　uttered　the　responses　of　the　oracle　from　his　concealment　in　a　frame　of　wicker…work。　But　in　the　southern　islands　of　the　Pacific　the　god　frequently　entered　the　priest；　who；　inflated　as　it　were　with　the　divinity；　ceased　to　act　or　speak　as　a　voluntary　agent；　but　moved　and　spoke　as　entirely　under　supernatural　influence。　In　this　respect　there　was　a　striking　resemblance　between　the　rude　oracles　of　the　Polynesians；　and　those　of　the　celebrated　nations　of　ancient　Greece。　As　soon　as　the　god　was　supposed　to　have　entered　the　priest；　the　latter　became　violently　agitated；　and　worked　himself　up　to　the　highest　pitch　of　apparent　frenzy；　the　muscles　of　the　limbs　seemed　convulsed；　the　body　swelled；　the　countenance　became　terrific；　the　features　distorted；　and　the　eyes　wild　and　strained。　In　this　state　he　often　rolled　on　the　earth；　foaming　at　the　mouth；　as　if　labouring　under　the　influence　of　the　divinity　by　whom　he　was　possessed；　and；　in　shrill　cries；　and　violent　and　often　indistinct　sounds；　revealed　the　will　of　the　god。　The　priests；　who　were　attending；　and　versed　in　the　mysteries；　received；　and　reported　to　the　people；　the　declarations　which　had　been　thus　received。　When　the　priest　had　uttered　the　response　of　the　oracle；　the　violent　paroxysm　gradually　subsided；　and　comparative　composure　ensued。　The　god　did　not；　however；　always　leave　him　as　soon　as　the　communication　had　been　made。　Sometimes　the　same　taura；　o