the golden bough-第98章

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　the　spirit　cannot　hear　their　voice。　Amongst　the　tribes　of　Central　Australia　no　one　may　utter　the　name　of　the　deceased　during　the　period　of　mourning；　unless　it　is　absolutely　necessary　to　do　so；　and　then　it　is　only　done　in　a　whisper　for　fear　of　disturbing　and　annoying　the　man's　spirit　which　is　walking　about　in　ghostly　form。　If　the　ghost　hears　his　name　mentioned　he　concludes　that　his　kinsfolk　are　not　mourning　for　him　properly；　if　their　grief　were　genuine　they　could　not　bear　to　bandy　his　name　about。　Touched　to　the　quick　by　their　hard…hearted　indifference　the　indignant　ghost　will　come　and　trouble　them　in　dreams。

The　same　reluctance　to　utter　the　names　of　the　dead　appears　to　prevail　among　all　the　Indian　tribes　of　America　from　Hudson's　Bay　Territory　to　Patagonia。　Among　the　Goajiros　of　Colombia　to　mention　the　dead　before　his　kinsmen　is　a　dreadful　offence；　which　is　often　punished　with　death；　for　if　it　happens　on　the　rancho　of　the　deceased；　in　presence　of　his　nephew　or　uncle；　they　will　assuredly　kill　the　offender　on　the　spot　if　they　can。　But　if　he　escapes；　the　penalty　resolves　itself　into　a　heavy　fine；　usually　of　two　or　more　oxen。

A　similar　reluctance　to　mention　the　names　of　the　dead　is　reported　of　peoples　so　widely　separated　from　each　other　as　the　Samoyeds　of　Siberia　and　the　Todas　of　Southern　India；　the　Mongols　of　Tartary　and　the　Tuaregs　of　the　Sahara；　the　Ainos　of　Japan　and　the　Akamba　and　Nandi　of　Eastern　Africa；　the　Tinguianes　of　the　Philippines　and　the　inhabitants　of　the　Nicobar　Islands；　of　Borneo；　of　Madagascar；　and　of　Tasmania。　In　all　cases；　even　where　it　is　not　expressly　stated；　the　fundamental　reason　for　this　avoidance　is　probably　the　fear　of　the　ghost。　That　this　is　the　real　motive　with　the　Tuaregs　we　are　positively　informed。　They　dread　the　return　of　the　dead　man's　spirit；　and　do　all　they　can　to　avoid　it　by　shifting　their　camp　after　a　death；　ceasing　for　ever　to　pronounce　the　name　of　the　departed；　and　eschewing　everything　that　might　be　regarded　as　an　evocation　or　recall　of　his　soul。　Hence　they　do　not；　like　the　Arabs；　designate　individuals　by　adding　to　their　personal　names　the　names　of　their　fathers；　they　never　speak　of　So…and…so；　son　of　So…and…so；　they　give　to　every　man　a　name　which　will　live　and　die　with　him。　So　among　some　of　the　Victorian　tribes　in　Australia　personal　names　were　rarely　perpetuated；　because　the　natives　believed　that　any　one　who　adopted　the　name　of　a　deceased　person　would　not　live　long；　probably　his　ghostly　namesake　was　supposed　to　come　and　fetch　him　away　to　the　spirit…land。

The　same　fear　of　the　ghost；　which　moves　people　to　suppress　his　old　name；　naturally　leads　all　persons　who　bear　a　similar　name　to　exchange　it　for　another；　lest　its　utterance　should　attract　the　attention　of　the　ghost；　who　cannot　reasonably　be　expected　to　discriminate　between　all　the　different　applications　of　the　same　name。　Thus　we　are　told　that　in　the　Adelaide　and　Encounter　Bay　tribes　of　South　Australia　the　repugnance　to　mentioning　the　names　of　those　who　have　died　lately　is　carried　so　far；　that　persons　who　bear　the　same　name　as　the　deceased　abandon　it；　and　either　adopt　temporary　names　or　are　known　by　any　others　that　happen　to　belong　to　them。　A　similar　custom　prevails　among　some　of　the　Queensland　tribes；　but　the　prohibition　to　use　the　names　of　the　dead　is　not　permanent；　though　it　may　last　for　many　years。　In　some　Australian　tribes　the　change　of　name　thus　brought　about　is　permanent；　the　old　name　is　laid　aside　for　ever；　and　the　man　is　known　by　his　new　name　for　the　rest　of　his　life；　or　at　least　until　he　is　obliged　to　change　it　again　for　a　like　reason。　Among　the　North　American　Indians　all　persons；　whether　men　or　women；　who　bore　the　name　of　one　who　had　just　died　were　obliged　to　abandon　it　and　to　adopt　other　names；　which　was　formally　done　at　the　first　ceremony　of　mourning　for　the　dead。　In　some　tribes　to　the　east　of　the　Rocky　Mountains　this　change　of　name　lasted　only　during　the　season　of　mourning；　but　in　other　tribes　on　the　Pacific　Coast　of　North　America　it　seems　to　have　been　permanent。

Sometimes　by　an　extension　of　the　same　reasoning　all　the　near　relations　of　the　deceased　change　their　names；　whatever　they　may　happen　to　be；　doubtless　from　a　fear　that　the　sound　of　the　familiar　names　might　lure　back　the　vagrant　spirit　to　its　old　home。　Thus　in　some　Victorian　tribes　the　ordinary　names　of　all　the　next　of　kin　were　disused　during　the　period　of　mourning；　and　certain　general　terms；　prescribed　by　custom；　were　substituted　for　them。　To　call　a　mourner　by　his　own　name　was　considered　an　insult　to　the　departed；　and　often　led　to　fighting　and　bloodshed。　Among　Indian　tribes　of　North…western　America　near　relations　of　the　deceased　often　change　their　names　under　an　impression　that　spirits　will　be　attracted　back　to　earth　if　they　hear　familiar　names　often　repeated。　Among　the　Kiowa　Indians　the　name　of　the　dead　is　never　spoken　in　the　presence　of　the　relatives；　and　on　the　death　of　any　member　of　a　family　all　the　others　take　new　names。　This　custom　was　noted　by　Raleigh's　colonists　on　Roanoke　Island　more　than　three　centuries　ago。　Among　the　Lengua　Indians　not　only　is　a　dead　man's　name　never　mentioned；　but　all　the　survivors　change　their　names　also。　They　say　that　Death　has　been　among　them　and　has　carried　off　a　list　of　the　living；　and　that　he　will　soon　come　back　for　more　victims；　hence　in　order　to　defeat　his　fell　purpose　they　change　their　names；　believing　that　on　his　return　Death；　though　he　has　got　them　all　on　his　list；　will　not　be　able　to　identify　them　under　their　new　names；　and　will　depart　to　pursue　the　search　elsewhere。　Nicobarese　mourners　take　new　names　in　order　to　escape　the　unwelcome　attentions　of　the　ghost；　and　for　the　same　purpose　they　disguise　themselves　by　shaving　their　heads　so　that　the　ghost　is　unable　to　recognise　them。

Further；　when　the　name　of　the　deceased　happens　to　be　that　of　some　common　object；　such　as　an　animal；　or　plant；　or　fire；　or　water；　it　is　sometimes　considered　necessary　to　drop　that　word　in　ordinary　speech　and　replace　it　by　another。　A　custom　of　this　sort；　it　is　plain；　may　easily　be　a　potent　agent　of　change　in　language；　for　where　it　prevails　to　any　considerable　extent　many　words　must　constantly　become　obsolete　and　new　ones　spring　up。　And　this　tendency　has　been　remarked　by　observers　who　have　recorded　the　custom　in　Australia；　America；　and　elsewhere。　For　example；　with　regard　to　the　Australian　aborigines　it　has　been　noted　that　the　dialects　change　with　almost　every　tribe。　Some　tribes　name　their　children　after　natural　objects；　and　when　the　person　so　named　dies；　the　word　is　never　again　mentioned；　another　word　has　therefore　to　be　invented　for　the　object　after　which　the　child　was　called。　The　writer　gives　as　an　instance　the　case　of　a　man　whose　name　Karla　signified　fire；　when　Karla　died；　a　new　word　for　fire　had　to　be　introduced。　Hence；　adds　the　writer；　the　language　is　always　changing。　Again；　in　the　Encounter　Bay　tribe　of　South　Australia；　if　a　man　of　the　name　of　Ngnke；　which　means　water；　were　to　die；　the　whole　tribe　would　be　obliged　to　use　some　other　word　to　express　water　for　a　considerable　time　after　his　decease。　The　writer　who　records　this　custom　surmises　that　it　may　explain　the　presence　of　a　number　of　synonyms　in　the　language　of　the　tribe。　This　conjecture　is　confirmed　by　what　we　know　of　some　Victorian　tribes　whose　speech　comprised　a　regular　set　of　synonyms　to　be　used　instead　of　the　common　terms　by　all　members　of　a　tribe　in　times　of　mourning。　For　instance；　if　a　man　called　Waa　（　crow）　departed　this　life；　during　the　period　of　mourning　for　him　nobody　might　call　a　crow　a　waa；　everybody　had　to　speak　of　the　bird　as　a　narrapart。　When　a　person　who　rejoiced　in　the　title　of　Ringtail　Opossum　（weearn）　had　gone　the　way　of　all　flesh；　his　sorrowing　relations　and　the　tribe　at　large　were　bound　for　a　time　to　refer　to　ringtail　opossums　by　the　more　sonorous　name　of　manuungkuurt。　If　the　community　were　plunged　in　grief　for　the　loss　of　a　respected　female　who　bore　the　honourable　name　of　Turkey　Bustard；　the　proper　name　for　turkey　bustards；　which　was　barrim　barrim；　went　out；　and　tillit　tilliitsh　came　in。　And　so　mutatis　mutandis　with　the　names　of　Black　Cockatoo；　Grey　Duck；　Gigantic　Crane；　Kangaroo；　Eagle；　Dingo；　and　the　rest。

A　similar　custom　used　to　be　constantly　transforming　the　language　of