wealbk04-第40章

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labourer　or　as　an　artificer。　But　among　the　ancient　Romans　the

lands　of　the　rich　were　all　cultivated　by　slaves；　who　wrought

under　an　overseer　who　was　likewise　a　slave；　so　that　a　poor

freeman　had　little　chance　of　being　employed　either　as　a　farmer　or

as　a　labourer。　All　trades　and　manufactures　too；　even　the　retail

trade；　were　carried　on　by　the　slaves　of　the　rich　for　the　benefit

of　their　masters；　whose　wealth；　authority；　and　protection　made　it

difficult　for　a　poor　freeman　to　maintain　the　competition　against

them。　The　citizens；　therefore；　who　had　no　land；　had　scarce　any

other　means　of　subsistence　but　the　bounties　of　the　candidates　at

the　annual　elections。　The　tribunes；　when　they　had　a　mind　to

animate　the　people　against　the　rich　and　the　great；　put　them　in

mind　of　the　ancient　division　of　lands；　and　represented　that　law

which　restricted　this　sort　of　private　property　as　the　fundamental

law　of　the　republic。　The　people　became　clamorous　to　get　land；　and

the　rich　and　the　great；　we　may　believe；　were　perfectly　determined

not　to　give　them　any　part　of　theirs。　To　satisfy　them　in　some

measure　therefore；　they　frequently　proposed　to　send　out　a　new

colony。　But　conquering　Rome　was；　even　upon　such　occasions；　under

no　necessity　of　turning　out　her　citizens　to　seek　their　fortune；

if　one　may　say　so；　through　the　wide　world；　without　knowing　where

they　were　to　settle。　She　assigned　them　lands　generally　in　the

conquered　provinces　of　Italy；　where；　being　within　the　dominions

of　the　republic；　they　could　never　form　an　independent　state；　but

were　at　best　but　a　sort　of　corporation；　which；　though　it　had　the

power　of　enacting　bye…laws　for　its　own　government；　was　at　all

times　subject　to　the　correction；　jurisdiction；　and　legislative

authority　of　the　mother　city。　The　sending　out　a　colony　of　this

kind　not　only　gave　some　satisfaction　to　the　people；　but　often

established　a　sort　of　garrison；　too；　in　a　newly　conquered

province；　of　which　the　obedience　might　otherwise　have　been

doubtful。　A　Roman　colony　therefore；　whether　we　consider　the

nature　of　the　establishment　itself　or　the　motives　for　making　it；

was　altogether　different　from　a　Greek　one。　The　words　accordingly；

which　in　the　original　languages　denote　those　different

establishments；　have　very　different　meanings。　The　Latin　word

（Colonia）　signifies　simply　a　plantation。　The　Greek　word　apoikia；

on　the　contrary；　signifies　a　separation　of　dwelling；　a　departure

from　home；　a　going　out　of　the　house。　But；　though　the　Roman

colonies　were　in　many　respects　different　from　the　Greek　ones；　the

interest　which　prompted　to　establish　them　was　equally　plain　and

distinct。　Both　institutions　derived　their　origin　either　from

irresistible　necessity；　or　from　clear　and　evident　utility。

　　　　　The　establishment　of　the　European　colonies　in　America　and

the　West　Indies　arose　from　no　necessity：　and　though　the　utility

which　has　resulted　from　them　has　been　very　great；　it　is　not

altogether　so　clear　and　evident。　It　was　not　understood　at　their

first　establishment；　and　was　not　the　motive　either　of　that

establishment　or　of　the　discoveries　which　gave　occasion　to　it；

and　the　nature；　extent；　and　limits　of　that　utility　are　not；

perhaps；　well　understood　at　this　day。

　　　　　The　Venetians；　during　the　fourteenth　and　fifteenth

centuries；　carried　on　a　very　advantageous　commerce　in　spiceries；

and　other　East　India　goods；　which　they　distributed　among　the

other　nations　of　Europe。　They　purchased　them　chiefly　in　Egypt；　at

that　time　under　the　dominion　of　the　Mamelukes；　the　enemies　of　the

Turks；　of　whom　the　Venetians　were　the　enemies；　and　this　union　of

interest；　assisted　by　the　money　of　Venice；　formed　such　a

connection　as　gave　the　Venetians　almost　a　monopoly　of　the　trade。

　　　　　The　great　profits　of　the　Venetians　tempted　the　avidity　of

the　Portuguese。　They　had　been　endeavouring；　during　the　course　of

the　fifteenth　century；　to　find　out　by　sea　a　way　to　the　countries

from　which　the　Moors　brought　them　ivory　and　gold　dust　across　the

desert。　They　discovered　the　Madeiras；　the　Canaries；　the　Azores；

the　Cape　de　Verde　Islands；　the　coast　of　Guinea；　that　of　Loango；

Congo；　Angola；　and　Benguela；　and；　finally；　the　Cape　of　Good　Hope。

They　had　long　wished　to　share　in　the　profitable　traffic　of　the

Venetians；　and　this　last　discovery　opened　to　them　a　probable

prospect　of　doing　so。　In　1497；　Vasco　de　Gama　sailed　from　the　port

of　Lisbon　with　a　fleet　of　four　ships；　and　after　a　navigation　of

eleven　months　arrived　upon　the　coast　of　Indostan；　and　thus

completed　a　course　of　discoveries　which　had　been　pursued　with

great　steadiness；　and　with　very　little　interruption；　for　nearly　a

century　together。

　　　　　Some　years　before　this；　while　the　expectations　of　Europe

were　in　suspense　about　the　projects　of　the　Portuguese；　of　which

the　success　appeared　yet　to　be　doubtful；　a　Genoese　pilot　formed

the　yet　more　daring　project　of　sailing　to　the　East　Indies　by　the

West。　The　situation　of　those　countries　was　at　that　time　very

imperfectly　known　in　Europe。　The　few　European　travellers　who　had

been　there　had　magnified　the　distance；　perhaps　through　simplicity

and　ignorance；　what　was　really　very　great　appearing　almost

infinite　to　those　who　could　not　measure　it；　or；　perhaps；　in　order

to　increase　somewhat　more　the　marvellous　of　their　own　adventures

in　visiting　regions　so　immensely　remote　from　Europe。　The　longer

the　way　was　by　the　East；　Columbus　very　justly　concluded；　the

shorter　it　would　be　by　the　West。　He　proposed；　therefore；　to　take

that　way；　as　both　the　shortest　and　the　surest；　and　he　had　the

good　fortune　to　convince　Isabella　of　Castile　of　the　probability

of　his　project。　He　sailed　from　the　port　of　Palos　in　August　1492；

nearly　five　years　before　the　expedition　of　Vasco　de　Gama　set　out

from　Portugal；　and；　after　a　voyage　of　between　two　and　three

months；　discovered　first　some　of　the　small　Bahamas　or　Lucayan

islands；　and　afterwards　the　great　island　of　St。　Domingo。

　　　　　But　the　countries　which　Columbus　discovered；　either　in　this

or　in　any　of　his　subsequent　voyages；　had　no　resemblance　to　those

which　he　had　gone　in　quest　of。　Instead　of　the　wealth；

cultivation；　and　populousness　of　China　and　Indostan；　he　found；　in

St。　Domingo；　and　in　all　the　other　parts　of　the　new　world　which　he

ever　visited；　nothing　but　a　country　quite　covered　with　wood；

uncultivated；　and　inhabited　only　by　some　tribes　of　naked　and

miserable　savages。　He　was　not　very　willing；　however；　to　believe

that　they　were　not　the　same　with　some　of　the　countries　described

by　Marco　Polo；　the　first　European　who　had　visited；　or　at　least

had　left　behind　him；　any　description　of　China　or　the　East　Indies；

and　a　very　slight　resemblance；　such　as　that　which　he　found

between　the　name　of　Cibao；　a　mountain　in　St。　Domingo；　and　that　of

Cipango　mentioned　by　Marco　Polo；　was　frequently　sufficient　to

make　him　return　to　this　favourite　prepossession；　though　contrary

to　the　clearest　evidence。　In　his　letters　to　Ferdinand　and

Isabella　he　called　the　countries　which　he　had　discovered　the

Indies。　He　entertained　no　doubt　but　that　they　were　the　extremity

of　those　which　had　been　described　by　Marco　Polo；　and　that　they

were　not　very　distant　from　the　Ganges；　or　from　the　countries

which　had　been　conquered　by　Alexander。　Even　when　at　last

convinced　that　they　were　different；　he　still　flattered　himself

that　those　rich　countries　were　at　no　great　distance；　and；　in　a

subsequent　voyage；　accordingly；　went　in　quest　of　them　along　the

coast　of　Terra　Firma；　and　towards　the　Isthmus　of　Darien。

　　　　　In　consequence　of　this　mistake　of　Columbus；　the　name　of　the

Indies　has　stuck　to　those　unfortunate　countries　ever　since；　and

when　it　was　at　last　clearly　discovered　that　the　new　were

altogether　different　from　the　old　Indies；　the　former　were　called

the　West；　in　contradistinction　to　the　latter；　which　were　called

the　East　Indies。

　　　　　It　was　of　importance　to　Columbus；　however；　that　the

countries　which　he　had　discovered；　whatever　they　were；　should　be

represented　to　the　court　of　Spain　as　of　very　great　consequence；

and；　in　what　constitutes　the　real　riches　of　every　country；　the

animal　and　vegetable　productions　of　the　s