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the evolution of modern medicine(�峇�匳勞議處延)-及8嫗

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life or soul�察�as   the seat of life�察�in the sacrificial animal is�察�therefore�察�the 

divine element in the animal�察�and the god in accepting the animal�察�which is 

involved in the act of bringing it as an offering to a god�察�identifies himself 

with the animalbecomes�察�as it were�察�one with it。 The life in the animal is 

a reflection of his own life�察�and since the fate of men rests with the gods�察�if 

one   can   succeed   in   entering   into   the   mind   of   a   god�察  �and   thus   ascertain 

what he purposes to do�察�the key for the solution of the problem as to what 

the future has in store will have been found。 The liver being the centre of 

vitalitythe   seat   of   the   mind�察  �therefore�察  �as   well   as   of   the   emotionsit 

becomes in the case of the sacrificial animal�察�either directly identical with 

the mind of the god who accepts the animal�察�or�察�at all events�察�a mirror in 

which     the   god's   mind    is  reflected�察  �or�察 �to  use   another    figure�察 �a  watch 

regulated to be in sympathetic and perfect accord with a second watch。 If�察�

therefore�察�one can read the liver of the sacrificial animal�察�one enters�察�as it 

were�察�into the workshop of the divine will。;��15�А�

     ��15�А�Morris Jastrow�此�loc。 cit。�察�p。 122。 

       Hepatoscopy thus became�察�among the Babylonians�察�of extraordinary 

complexity�察�and the organ of the sheep was studied and figured as early as 

3000      B。C。   In   the   divination     rites�察  �the   lobes�察  �the   gall´bladder�察    �the 

appendages   of   the   upper   lobe   and   the   markings   were   all   inspected   with 

unusual care。 The earliest known anatomical model�察�which is here shown�察�

is the   clay  model   of   a  sheep's   liver  with   the   divination   text   dating   from 

about     2000    B。C。�察   �from    which    Jastrow     has   worked      out   the  modern 

anatomical   equivalents   of   the   Babylonian   terms。 To   reach   a   decision   on 



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any   point�察  �the   phenomena   of   the   inspection   of   the   liver   were   carefully 

recorded�察  �and   the   interpretations   rested   on   a   more   or   less   natural   and 

original association of ideas。 Thus�察�if the gall´bladder were swollen on the 

right side�察�it pointed to an increase in the strength of the King's army�察�and 

was favorable�察�if on the left side�察�it indicated rather success of the enemy�察�

and was unfavorable。 If the bile duct was long�察�it pointed to a long life。 

Gallstones      are  not   infrequently     mentioned     in  the   divination    texts   and 

might be favorable�察�or unfavorable。 Various interpretations were gathered 

by the scribes in the reference note´books which serve as guides for the 

interpretation of the omens and for text´books of instructions in the temple 

schools ��Jastrow��。 

     The   art   of   divination   spread   widely   among   the   neighboring   nations。 

There are many references in the Bible to the practice。 The elders of Moab 

and Midian came to Balaam ;with the rewards of divination in their hand; 

��Numbers   xxii�察  �7��。   Joseph's   cup   of   divination   was   found   in   Benjamin's 

sack ��Genesis xliv�察�5�察�12���察�and in Ezekiel ��xxi�察�21�� the King of Babylon 

stood at the parting of the way and looked in the liver。 Hepatoscopy was 

also practiced by the Etruscans�察�and from them it passed to the Greeks and 

the Romans�察�among whom it degenerated into a more or less meaningless 

form。 But Jastrow states that in Babylonia and Assyria�察�where for several 

thousand   years   the   liver   was   consistently  employed   as   the   sole   organ   of 

divination�察  �there   are   no   traces   of   the   rite   having   fallen   into   decay�察  �or 

having been abused by the priests。 

     In    Roman      times�察  �Philostratus     gives    an   account     of  the   trial   of 

Apollonius of Tyana�撮�16�А�accused of human hepatoscopy by sacrificing a 

boy in the practice of magic arts against the Emperor。 ;The liver�察�which 

the experts say is the very tripod of their art�察�does not consist of pure blood�察�

for the heart retains all the uncontaminated blood�察�and irrigates the whole 

body   with   it   by   the   conduits   of   the   arteries�察  �whereas   the   gall�察  �which   is 

situated next the liver�察�is stimulated by anger and depressed by fear into 

the hollows of the liver。; 

     We have seen how early and how widespread was the belief in amulets 

and charms against the occult powers of darkness。 One that has persisted 

with   extraordinary   tenacity   is   the   belief   in   the   Evil   Eye   the   power   of 



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certain   individuals   to   injure   with   a   look。   Of   general   belief   in   the   older 

civilizations�察  �and   referred   to   in   several   places   in   the   Bible�察  �it   passed   to 

Greece and Rome�察�and today is still held fervently in many parts of Europe。 

The  sign   of   ;le  corna�察�the   first   and   fourth   fingers   extended�察  �the   others 

turned down and the thumb closed over them��still used against the Evil 

Eye   in   Italy�察  �was   a   mystic   sign   used   by   the   Romans   in   the   festival   of 

Lemuralia。 And we meet with the belief also in this country。 A child with 

hemiplegia�察      �at   the   Infirmary      for   Diseases     of   the    Nervous      System�察�

Philadelphia�察  �from   the   central   part   of   Pennsylvania�察  �was   believed   by   its 

parents to have had the Evil Eye cast upon it。 

     The second contribution of Babylonia and Assyria to medicine one 

that affected mankind profoundlyrelates to the supposed influence of the 

heavenly bodies upon man's welfare。 A belief that the stars in their courses 

fought for or against him arose early in their civilizations�察�and directly out 

of    their   studies   on    astrology     and   mathematics。       The    Macrocosm�察       �the 

heavens      that   ;declare    the   glory    of  God�察─    �reflect�察 �as   in  a  mirror�察   �the 

Microcosm�察        �the  daily    life  of   man    on    earth。   The    first  step   was    the 

identification   of the   sun�察 �moon   and   stars   with   the gods   of the   pantheon。 

Assyrian astronomical observations show an extraordinary development of 

practical   knowledge。   The   movements   of   the   sun   and   moon   and   of   the 

planets were studied�察�the Assyrians knew the precession of the equinoxes 

and     many     of   the   fundamental       laws    of   astronomy�察     �and    the   modern 

nomenclature   dates   from   their   findings。   In   their   days   the   signs   of   the 

zodiac     corresponded        practically    with    the   twelve    constellations      whose 

names   they   still   bear�察  �each   division   being   represented   by   the   symbol   of 

some   god�察  �as   the   Scorpion�察  �the   Ram�察  �the   Twins�察  �etc。   ;Changes   in   the 

heavens 。 。 。 portended changes on earth。 The Biblical expression 'hosts of 

heaven' for the starry universe admirably reflects the conception held by 

the Babylonian astrologers。 Moon�察�planets and stars constituted an army in 

constant activity�察�executing military manoeuvres which were the result of 

deliberation and which had in view a fixed purpose。 It was the function of 

the    priest   the  barqu�察   �or   'inspector��'   as   the  astrologer     as  well    as  the 

'inspector' of the liver was calledto discover this purpose。 In order to do 

so�察�a system of interpretation was evolved�察�less logical and less elaborate 



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than   the   system   of   hepatoscopy�察  �which   was   analyzed   in   the   preceding 

chapter�察  �but   nevertheless   meriting   attention   bo

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