democracy in america-1-第30章

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Chapter　V：　Necessity　Of　Examining　The　Condition　Of　The　States　…　Part　III

Legislative　Power　Of　The　State

Division　of　the　Legislative　Body　into　two　Houses　…　Senate　…　House　of　Representatives　…　Different　functions　of　these　two　Bodies。　

The　legislative　power　of　the　State　is　vested　in　two　assemblies；　the　first　of　which　generally　bears　the　name　of　the　Senate。　　The　Senate　is　commonly　a　legislative　body；　but　it　sometimes　becomes　an　executive　and　judicial　one。　　It　takes　a　part　in　the　government　in　several　ways；　according　to　the　constitution　of　the　different　States；　*m　but　it　is　in　the　nomination　of　public　functionaries　that　it　most　commonly　assumes　an　executive　power。　It　partakes　of　judicial　power　in　the　trial　of　certain　political　offences；　and　sometimes　also　in　the　decision　of　certain　civil　cases。　*n　The　number　of　its　members　is　always　small。　　The　other　branch　of　the　legislature；　which　is　usually　called　the　House　of　Representatives；　has　no　share　whatever　in　the　administration；　and　only　takes　a　part　in　the　judicial　power　inasmuch　as　it　impeaches　public　functionaries　before　the　Senate。　　The　members　of　the　two　Houses　are　nearly　everywhere　subject　to　the　same　conditions　of　election。　They　are　chosen　in　the　same　manner；　and　by　the　same　citizens。　　The　only　difference　which　exists　between　them　is；　that　the　term　for　which　the　Senate　is　chosen　is　in　general　longer　than　that　of　the　House　of　Representatives。　The　latter　seldom　remain　in　office　longer　than　a　year；　the　former　usually　sit　two　or　three　years。　　By　granting　to　the　senators　the　privilege　of　being　chosen　for　several　years；　and　being　renewed　seriatim；　the　law　takes　care　to　preserve　in　the　legislative　body　a　nucleus　of　men　already　accustomed　to　public　business；　and　capable　of　exercising　a　salutary　influence　upon　the　junior　members。

＇Footnote　m：　In　Massachusetts　the　Senate　is　not　invested　with　any　administrative　functions。＇

＇Footnote　n：　As　in　the　State　of　New　York。＇

The　Americans；　plainly；　did　not　desire；　by　this　separation　of　the　legislative　body　into　two　branches；　to　make　one　house　hereditary　and　the　other　elective；　one　aristocratic　and　the　other　democratic。　　It　was　not　their　object　to　create　in　the　one　a　bulwark　to　power；　whilst　the　other　represented　the　interests　and　passions　of　the　people。　　The　only　advantages　which　result　from　the　present　constitution　of　the　United　States　are　the　division　of　the　legislative　power　and　the　consequent　check　upon　political　assemblies；　with　the　creation　of　a　tribunal　of　appeal　for　the　revision　of　the　laws。

Time　and　experience；　however；　have　convinced　the　Americans　that　if　these　are　its　only　advantages；　the　division　of　the　legislative　power　is　still　a　principle　of　the　greatest　necessity。　　Pennsylvania　was　the　only　one　of　the　United　States　which　at　first　attempted　to　establish　a　single　House　of　Assembly；　and　Franklin　himself　was　so　far　carried　away　by　the　necessary　consequences　of　the　principle　of　the　sovereignty　of　the　people　as　to　have　concurred　in　the　measure；　but　the　Pennsylvanians　were　soon　obliged　to　change　the　law；　and　to　create　two　Houses。　　Thus　the　principle　of　the　division　of　the　legislative　power　was　finally　established；　and　its　necessity　may　henceforward　be　regarded　as　a　demonstrated　truth。　　This　theory；　which　was　nearly　unknown　to　the　republics　of　antiquity　…　which　was　introduced　into　the　world　almost　by　accident；　like　so　many　other　great　truths　…　and　misunderstood　by　several　modern　nations；　is　at　length　become　an　axiom　in　the　political　science　of　the　present　age。

＇See　Benjamin　Franklin＇

The　Executive　Power　Of　The　State

Office　of　Governor　in　an　American　State　…　The　place　he　occupies　in　relation　to　the　Legislature　…　His　rights　and　his　duties　…　His　dependence　on　the　people。

The　executive　power　of　the　State　may　with　truth　be　said　to　be　represented　by　the　Governor；　although　he　enjoys　but　a　portion　of　its　rights。　The　supreme　magistrate；　under　the　title　of　Governor；　is　the　official　moderator　and　counsellor　of　the　legislature。　　He　is　armed　with　a　veto　or　suspensive　power；　which　allows　him　to　stop；　or　at　least　to　retard；　its　movements　at　pleasure。　He　lays　the　wants　of　the　country　before　the　legislative　body；　and　points　out　the　means　which　he　thinks　may　be　usefully　employed　in　providing　for　them；　he　is　the　natural　executor　of　its　decrees　in　all　the　undertakings　which　interest　the　nation　at　large。　*o　In　the　absence　of　the　legislature；　the　Governor　is　bound　to　take　all　necessary　steps　to　guard　the　State　against　violent　shocks　and　unforeseen　dangers。　　The　whole　military　power　of　the　State　is　at　the　disposal　of　the　Governor。　　He　is　the　commander　of　the　militia；　and　head　of　the　armed　force。　　When　the　authority；　which　is　by　general　consent　awarded　to　the　laws；　is　disregarded；　the　Governor　puts　himself　at　the　head　of　the　armed　force　of　the　State；　to　quell　resistance；　and　to　restore　order。　　Lastly；　the　Governor　takes　no　share　in　the　administration　of　townships　and　counties；　except　it　be　indirectly　in　the　nomination　of　Justices　of　the　Peace；　which　nomination　he　has　not　the　power　to　cancel。　*p　The　Governor　is　an　elected　magistrate；　and　is　generally　chosen　for　one　or　two　years　only；　so　that　he　always　continues　to　be　strictly　dependent　upon　the　majority　who　returned　him。

＇Footnote　o：　Practically　speaking；　it　is　not　always　the　Governor　who　executes　the　plans　of　the　Legislature；　it　often　happens　that　the　latter；　in　voting　a　measure；　names　special　agents　to　superintend　the　execution　of　it。＇

＇Footnote　p：　In　some　of　the　States　the　justices　of　the　peace　are　not　elected　by　the　Governor。＇

Political　Effects　Of　The　System　Of　Local　Administration　In　The　United　States

Necessary　distinction　between　the　general　centralization　of　Government　and　the　centralization　of　the　local　administration　…　Local　administration　not　centralized　in　the　United　States：　great　general　centralization　of　the　Government　…　Some　bad　consequences　resulting　to　the　United　States　from　the　local　administration　…　Administrative　advantages　attending　this　order　of　things　…　The　power　which　conducts　the　Government　is　less　regular；　less　enlightened；　less　learned；　but　much　greater　than　in　Europe　…　Political　advantages　of　this　order　of　things　…　In　the　United　States　the　interests　of　the　country　are　everywhere　kept　in　view　…　Support　given　to　the　Government　by　the　community　…　Provincial　institutions　more　necessary　in　proportion　as　the　social　condition　becomes　more　democratic　…　Reason　of　this。

Centralization　is　become　a　word　of　general　and　daily　use；　without　any　precise　meaning　being　attached　to　it。　　Nevertheless；　there　exist　two　distinct　kinds　of　centralization；　which　it　is　necessary　to　discriminate　with　accuracy。　Certain　interests　are　common　to　all　parts　of　a　nation；　such　as　the　enactment　of　its　general　laws　and　the　maintenance　of　its　foreign　relations。　　Other　interests　are　peculiar　to　certain　parts　of　the　nation；　such；　for　instance；　as　the　business　of　different　townships。　　When　the　power　which　directs　the　general　interests　is　centred　in　one　place；　or　vested　in　the　same　persons；　it　constitutes　a　central　government。　　In　like　manner　the　power　of　directing　partial　or　local　interests；　when　brought　together　into　one　place；　constitutes　what　may　be　termed　a　central　administration。

Upon　some　points　these　two　kinds　of　centralization　coalesce；　but　by　classifying　the　objects　which　fall　more　particularly　within　the　province　of　each　of　them；　they　may　easily　be　distinguished。　　It　is　evident　that　a　central　government　acquires　immense　power　when　united　to　administrative　centralization。　　Thus　combined；　it　accustoms　men　to　set　their　own　will　habitually　and　completely　aside；　to　submit；　not　only　for　once；　or　upon　one　point；　but　in　every　respect；　and　at　all　times。　　Not　only；　therefore；　does　this　union　of　power　subdue　them　compulsorily；　but　it　affects　them　in　the　ordinary　habits　of　life；　and　influences　each　individual；　first　separately　and　then　collectively。

These　two　kinds　of　centralization　mutually　assist　and　attract　each　other；　but　they　must　not　be　supposed　to　be　inseparable。　　It　is　impossible　to　imagine　a　more　completely　central　government　than　that　which　existed　in　France　under　Louis　XIV。；　when　the　same　individual　was　the　author　and　the　interpreter　of　the　laws；　and　the　representative　of　Fran