the civilization of the renaissance in italy-第101章

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This　mode　of　thought　was　extended　with　thorough　consistency　into　　regions　where　we　should　hardly　expect　to　meet　with　it。　If　the　whole　　outward　and　spiritual　life　of　the　individual　is　determined　by　the　facts　　of　his　birth；　the　same　law　also　governs　groups　of　individuals　and　　historical　products　that　is　to　say；　nations　and　religions；　and　as　the　　constellation　of　these　things　changes；　so　do　the　things　themselves。　The　　idea　that　each　religion　has　its　day；　first　came　into　Italian　culture　in　　connection　with　these　astrological　beliefs。　The　conjunction　of　Jupiter　　with　Saturn　brought　forth；　we　are　told；　the　faith　of　Israel；　that　of　　Jupiter　and　Mars；　the　Chaldean；　with　the　Sun；　the　Egyptian；　with　Venus；　　the　Mohammedan；　with　Mercury；　the　Christian；　and　the　conjunction　of　　Jupiter　with　the　Moon　will　one　day　bring　forth　the　religion　of　　Antichrist。　Cecco　d'Ascoli　had　already　blasphemously　calculated　the　　nativity　of　Christ；　and　deduced　from　it　his　death　upon　the　Cross。　For　　this　he　was　burnt　at　the　stake　in　1327；　at　Florence。　Doctrines　of　this　　sort　ended　by　simply　darkening　men's　whole　perceptions　of　spiritual　　things。

So　much　more　worthy　then　of　recognition　is　the　warfare　which　the　clear　　Italian　spirit　waged　against　this　army　of　delusions。　Notwithstanding　　the　great　monumental　glorification　of　astrology；　as　in　the　frescoes　in　　the　Salone　at　Padua；　and　those　in　Borso's　summer　palace　（Schifanoia）　at　　Ferrara；　notwithstanding　the　shameless　praises　of　even　such　a　man　as　　the　elder　Beroaldus；　there　was　no　want　of　thoughtful　and　independent　　minds　to　protest　against　it。　Here；　too；　the　way　had　been　prepared　by　　antiquity；　but　it　was　their　own　common　sense　and　observation　which　　taught　them　what　to　say。　Petrarch's　attitude　towards　the　astrologers；　　whom　he　knew　by　personal　intercourse；　is　one　of　bitter　contempt；　and　no　　one　saw　through　their　system　of　lies　more　clearly　than　he。　The　novels；　　from　the　time　when　they　first　began　to　appear　from　the　time　of　the　　'Cento　novelle　antiche；'　are　almost　always　hostile　to　the　astrologers。　　The　Florentine　chroniclers　bravely　keep　themselves　free　from　the　　delusions　which；　as　part　of　historical　tradition；　they　are　compelled　to　　record。　Giovanni　Villani　says　more　than　once；　'No　constellation　can　　subjugate　either　the　free　will　of　man；　or　the　counsels　of　God。'　Matteo　　Villani　declares　astrology　to　be　a　vice　which　the　Florentines　had　　inherited；　along　with　other　superstitions；　from　their　pagan　ancestors；　　the　Romans。　The　question；　however；　did　not　remain　one　for　mere　literary　　discussion；　but　the　parties　for　and　against　disputed　publicly。　After　　the　terrible　floods　of　1333；　and　again　in　1345；　astrologers　and　　theologians　discussed　with　great　minuteness　the　influence　of　the　stars；　　the　will　of　God；　and　the　justice　of　his　punishments。　These　struggles　　never　ceased　throughout　the　whole　time　of　the　Renaissance；　and　we　may　　conclude　that　the　protestors　were　ill　earnest；　since　it　was　easier　for　　them　to　recommend　themselves　to　the　great　by　defending；　than　by　　opposing　astrology。

In　the　circle　of　Lorenzo　the　Magnificent；　among　his　most　distinguished　　Platonists；　opinions　were　divided　on　this　question。　Marsilio　Ficino　　defended　astrology；　and　drew　the　horoscope　of　the　children　of　the　　house；　promising　the　little　Giovanni；　afterwards　Leo　X；　that　he　would　　one　day　be　Pope。　Pico　della　Mirandola；　on　the　other　hand；　made　an　epoch　　in　the　subject　by　his　famous　refutation。　He　detects　in　this　belief　the　　root　of　all　impiety　and　immorality。　If　the　astrologer；　he　maintains；　　believes　in　anything　at　all；　he　must　worship　not　God；　but　the　planets；　　from　which　all　good　and　evil　are　derived。　All　other　superstitions　find　　a　ready　instrument　in　astrology；　which　serves　as　handmaid　to　geomancy；　　chiromancy；　and　magic　of　every　kind。　As　to　morality；　he　maintains　that　　nothing　can　more　foster　evil　than　the　opinion　that　heaven　itself　is　the　　cause　of　it；　in　which　case　the　faith　in　eternal　happiness　and　　punishment　must　also　disappear。　Pico　even　took　the　trouble　to　check　off　　the　astrologers　inductively；　and　found　that　in　the　course　of　a　month　　three…fourths　of　their　weather　prophecies　turned　out　false。　But　his　　main　achievement　was　to　set　forth；　in　the　Fourth　Book；　a　positive　　Christian　doctrine　of　the　freedom　of　the　will　and　the　government　of　the　　universe；　which　seems　to　have　made　a　greater　impression　on　the　educated　　classes　throughout　Italy　than　all　the　revivalist　preachers　put　　together。　The　latter；　in　fact；　often　failed　to　reach　these　classes。

The　first　result　of　his　book　was　that　the　astrologers　ceased　to　publish　　their　doctrines；　and　those　who　had　already　printed　them　were　more　or　　less　ashamed　of　what　they　had　done。　Gioviano　Pontano；　for　example；　in　　his　book　on　Fate；　had　recognized　the　science；　and　in　a　great　work　of　　his　had　expounded　the　whole　theory　of　it　in　the　style　of　the　old　　Firmicus；　ascribing　to　the　stars　the　growth　of　every　bodily　and　　spiritual　quality。　He　now　in　his　dialogue　'Aegidius'　surrendered；　if　　not　astrology；　at　least　certain　astrologers）　and　sounded　the　praises　of　　free　will；　by　which　man　is　enabled　to　know　God。　Astrology　remained　more　　or　less　in　fashion；　but　seems　not　to　have　governed　human　life　in　the　　way　it　formerly　had　done。　The　art　of　painting；　which　in　the　fifteenth　　century　had　done　its　best　to　foster　the　delusion　now　expressed　the　　altered　tone　of　thought。　Raphael；　in　the　cupola　of　the　Capella　Chigi；　　represents　the　gods　of　the　different　planets　and　the　starry　firmament；　　watched；　however；　and　guided　by　beautiful　angel…figures；　and　receiving　　from　above　the　blessing　of　the　eternal　Father。　There　was　also　another　　cause　which　now　began　to　tell　against　astrology　in　Italy。　The　Spaniards　　took　no　interest　in　it；　not　even　the　generals；　and　those　who　wished　to　　gain　their　favour　declared　open　war　against　the　half…heretical；　half…　Mohammedan　science。　It　is　true　that　Guicciardini　writes　in　the　year　　1529：　'How　happy　are　the　astrologers；　who　are　believed　if　they　tell　one　　truth　to　a　hundred　lies；　while　other　people　lose　all　credit　if　they　　tell　one　lie　to　a　hundred　truths。'　But　the　contempt　for　astrology　did　　not　necessarily　lead　to　a　return　to　the　belief　in　Providence。　It　could　　as　easily　lead　to　an　indefinite　fatalism。

In　this　respect；　as　in　others；　Italy　was　unable　to　make　its　own　way　　healthily　through　the　ferment　of　the　Renaissance；　because　the　foreign　　invasion　and　the　Counter…Reformation　came　upon　it　in　the　middle。　　Without　such　interfering　causes　its　own　strength　would　have　enabled　it　　thoroughly　to　get　rid　of　these　fantastic　illusions。　Those　who　hold　that　　the　onslaught　of　the　strangers　and　the　Catholic　reactions　were　　necessities　for　which　the　Italian　people　was　itself　solely　responsible；　　will　look　on　the　spiritual　bankruptcy　which　they　produced　as　a　just　　retribution。　But　it　is　a　pity　that　the　rest　of　Europe　had　indirectly　to　　pay　so　large　a　part　of　the　penalty。

The　belief　in　omens　seems　a　much　more　innocent　matter　than　astrology。　　The　Middle　Ages　had　everywhere　inherited　them　in　abundance　from　the　　various　pagan　religions；　and　Italy　did　not　differ　in　this　respect　from　　other　countries。　What　is　characteristic　of　Italy　is　the　support　lent　by　　humanism　to　the　popular　superstition。　The　pagan　inheritance　was　here　　backed　up　by　a　pagan　literary　development。

The　popular　superstition　of　the　Italians　rested　largely　on　premonitions　　and　inferences　drawn　from　ominous　occurrences。　with　which　a　good　deal　　of　magic；　mostly　of　an　innocent　sort；　was　connected。　There　was；　　however。　no　lack　of　learned　humanists　who　boldly　ridiculed　these　　delusions；　and　to　whose　attacks　we　partly　owe　the　knowledge　of　them。　　Gioviano　Pontano；　the　author　of　the　great　astrological　work　already　　mentioned　above；　enumerates　with　pity　in　his　'Charon'　a　long　string　of　　Neapolitan　superstitionsthe　grief　of　the　women　when　a　fowl　or　goose　　caught　the　pip；　the　deep　anxiety　of　the　nobility　if　a　hunting　falcon　　did　not　come　home；　or　if　a　horse　sprained　its　foot；　the　magical　　formulae　of　the　Apulian　peasants；　recited　on　three　Saturday　evenings；　　when　mad　dogs　were　at　large。　The　animal　kingdom；　as　in　antiquity；　was　　regarded　as　specially　significant　in　this　respect；　and　the　behavior　of　　the　lions；　leopards；　and　other　beasts　kept　b