the civilization of the renaissance in italy-第76章

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rtistic　dexterity　were　　greatly　admired。　Side　by　side　with　this；　there　nevertheless　existed　an　　Italian　school；　which　probably　stood　nearer　to　our　present　taste。　Half　　a　century　later　came　Palestrina；　whose　genius　still　works　powerfully　　among　us。　We　learn　among　other　facts　that　he　was　a　great　innovator；　but　　whether　he　or　others　took　the　decisive　part　in　shaping　the　musical　　language　of　the　modern　world　lies　beyond　the　judgement　of　the　　unprofessional　critic。　Leaving　on　one　side　the　history　of　musical　　composition；　we　shall　confine　ourselves　to　the　position　which　music　　held　in　the　social　life　of　the　day。

A　fact　most　characteristic　of　the　Renaissance　and　of　Italy　is　the　　specialization　of　the　orchestra；　the　search　for　new　instruments　and　　modes　of　sound；　and；　in　close　connection　with　this　tendency；　the　　formation　of　a　class　of　'virtuosi；'　who　devoted　their　whole　attention　　to　particular　instruments　or　particular　branches　of　music。

Of　the　more　complex　instruments；　which　were　perfected　and　widely　　diffused　at　a　very　early　period；　we　find　not　only　the　organ；　but　a　　corresponding　string　instrument；　the　'gravicembalo'　or　'clavicembalo。'　　Fragments　of　these　dating　from　the　beginning　of　the　fourteenth　century　　have　come　down　to　our　own　days；　adorned　with　paintings　from　the　hands　　of　the　greatest　masters。　Among　other　instruments　the　first　place　was　　held　by　the　violin；　which　even　then　conferred　great　celebrity　on　the　　successful　player。　At　the　court　of　Leo　X；　who；　when　cardinal；　had　　filled　his　house　with　singers　and　musicians；　and　who　enjoyed　the　　reputation　of　a　critic　and　performer；　the　Jew　Giovan　Maria　del　Corneto　　and　Jacopo　Sansecondo　were　among　the　most　famous。　The　former　received　　from　Leo　the　title　of　count　and　a　small　town；　the　latter　has　been　taken　　to　be　the　Apollo　in　the　Parnassus　of　Raphael。　In　the　course　of　the　　sixteenth　century；　celebrities　in　every　branch　of　music　appeared　in　　abundance；　and　Lomazzo　（1584）　names　the　three　most　distinguished　　masters　of　the　art　of　singing；　of　the　organ；　the　lute；　the　lyre；　the　　'viola　da　gamba；'　the　harp；　the　cithern；　the　horn；　and　the　trumpet；　and　　wishes　that　their　portraits　might　be　painted　on　the　instruments　　themselves。97　Such　many…sided　comparative　criticism　would　have　been　　impossible　anywhere　but　in　Italy；　although　the　same　instruments　were　to　　be　found　in　other　countries。

The　number　and　variety　of　these　instruments　is　shown　by　the　fact　that　　collections　of　them　were　now　made　from　curiosity。　In　Venice；　which　was　　one　of　the　most　musical　cities　of　Italy；　there　were　several　such　　collections；　and　when　a　sufficient　number　of　performers　happened　to　be　　on　the　spot；　a　concert　was　at　once　improvised。　In　one　of　these　museums　　there　was　a　large　number　of　instruments；　made　after　ancient　pictures　　and　descriptions；　but　we　are　not　told　if　anybody　could　play　them；　or　　how　they　sounded。　It　must　not　be　forgotten　that　such　instruments　were　　often　beautifully　decorated；　and　could　be　arranged　in　a　manner　pleasing　　to　the　eye。　We　thus　meet　with　them　in　collections　of　other　rarities　and　　works　of　art。

The　players；　apart　from　the　professional　performers；　were　either　single　　amateurs；　or　whole　orchestras　of　them；　organized　into　a　corporate　　Academy。　Many　artists　in　other　branches　were　at　home　in　music；　and　　often　masters　of　the　art。　People　of　position　were　averse　to　wind　　instruments；　for　the　same　reason　which　made　them　distasteful　to　　Alcibiades　and　Pallas　Athene。　In　good　society　singing；　either　alone　or　　accompanied　with　the　violin；　was　usual；　but　quartettes　of　string　　instruments　were　also　common；　and　the　'clavicembalo'　was　liked　on　　account　of　its　varied　effects。　In　singing；　the　solo　only　was　permitted；　　'for　a　single　voice　is　heard；　enjoyed；　and　judged　far　better。'　In　other　　words；　as　singing；　notwithstanding　all　conventional　modesty；　is　an　　exhibition　of　the　individual　man　of　society；　it　is　better　that　each　　should　be　seen　and　heard　separately。　The　tender　feelings　produced　in　　the　fair　listeners　are　taken　for　granted；　and　elderly　people　are　　therefore　recommended　to　abstain　from　such　forms　of　art；　even　though　　they　excel　in　them。　It　was　held　important　that　the　effect　of　the　song　　should　be　enhanced　by　the　impression　made　on　the　sight。　We　hear　　nothing；　however；　of　the　treatment　in　these　circles　of　musical　　composition　as　an　independent　branch　of　art。　On　the　other　hand　it　　happened　sometimes　that　the　subject　of　the　song　was　some　terrible　event　　which　had　befallen　the　singer　himself。

This　dilettantism；　which　pervaded　the　middle　as　well　as　the　upper　　classes；　was　in　Italy　both　more　widespread　and　more　genuinely　artistic　　than　in　any　other　country　of　Europe。　Wherever　we　meet　with　a　　description　of　social　intercourse；　there　music　and　singing　are　always　　and　expressly　mentioned。　Hundreds　of　portraits　show　us　men　and　women；　　often　several　together；　playing　or　holding　some　musical　instrument；　and　　the　angelic　concerts　represented　in　the　ecclesiastical　pictures　prove　　how　familiar　the　painters　were　with　the　living　effects　of　music。　We　　read　of　the　lute…player　Antonio　Rota；　at　Padua　（d。　1549）；　who　became　a　　rich　man　by　his　lessons；　and　published　a　handbook　to　the　practice　of　　the　lute。

At　a　time　when　there　was　no　opera　to　concentrate　and　monopolize　musical　　talent；　this　general　cultivation　of　the　art　must　have　been　something　　wonderfully　varied；　intelligent；　and　original。　It　is　another　question　　how　much　we　should　find　to　satisfy　us　in　these　forms　of　music；　could　　they　now　be　reproduced　for　us。

Equality　of　Men　and　Women

To　understand　the　higher　forms　of　social　intercourse　at　this　period；　we　　must　keep　before　our　minds　the　fact　that　women　stood　on　a　footing　of　　perfect　equality　with　men。　We　must　not　suffer　ourselves　to　be　misled　by　　the　sophistical　and　often　malicious　talk　about　the　assumed　inferiority　　of　the　female　sex；　which　we　meet　with　now　and　then　in　the　dialogues　of　　this　time；　nor　by　such　satires　as　the　third　of　Ariosto；　who　treats　　woman　as　a　dangerous　grown…up　child；　whom　a　man　must　learn　how　to　　manage；　in　spite　of　the　great　gulf　between　them。　There　is；　indeed；　a　　certain　amount　of　truth　in　what　he　says。　Just　because　the　educated　　woman　was　on　a　level　with　the　man；　that　communion　of　mind　and　heart　　which　comes　from　the　sense　of　mutual　dependance　and　completion；　could　　not　be　developed　in　marriage　at　this　time；　as　it　has　been　developed　　later　in　the　cultivated　society　of　the　North。

The　education　given　to　women　in　the　upper　classes　was　essentially　the　　same　as　that　given　to　men。　The　Italian；　at　the　time　of　the　Renaissance；　　felt　no　scruple　in　putting　sons　and　daughters　alike　under　the　same　　course　of　literary　and　even　philological　instruction。　Indeed；　looking　　at　this　ancient　culture　as　the　chief　treasure　of　life；　he　was　glad　that　　his　girls　should　have　a　share　in　it。　We　have　seen　what　perfection　was　　attained　by　the　daughters　of　princely　houses　in　writing　and　speaking　　Latin。　Many　others　must　at　least　have　been　able　to　read　it；　in　order　to　　follow　the　conversation　of　the　day；　which　turned　largely　on　classical　　subjects。　An　active　interest　was　taken　by　many　in　Italian　poetry；　in　　which；　whether　prepared　or　improvised；　a　large　number　of　Italian　women；　　from　the　time　of　the　Venetian　Cassandra　Fedele　onwards　（about　the　close　　of　the　fifteenth　century）；　made　themselves　famous。　One；　indeed；　　Vittoria　Colonna；　may　be　called　immortal。　If　any　proof　were　needed　of　　the　assertion　made　above；　it　would　be　found　in　the　manly　tone　of　this　　poetry。　Even　the　love…sonnets　and　religious　poems　are　so　precise　and　　definite　in　their　character；　and　so　far　removed　from　the　tender　　twilight　of　sentiment；　and　from　all　the　dilettantism　which　we　commonly　　find　in　the　poetry　of　women；　that　we　should　not　hesitate　to　attribute　　them　to　male　authors；　if　we　had　not　clear　external　evidence　to　prove　　the　contrary。

For；　with　education；　the　individuality　of　women　in　the　upper　classes　　was　developed　in　the　same　way　as　that　of　men。　Till　the　time　of　the　　Reformation；　the　personality　of　women　out　of　Italy；　even　of　the　highest　　rank；　comes　forward　but　little。　Exceptions　like　Isabella　of　Bavaria；　　Margaret　of　Anjou；　and　Isabella　of　Castile；　are　the　forced　result　of　　very　unusual　circumstances。　In　Italy；　througho