the civilization of the renaissance in italy-第97章

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　Southern　Mediterranean。　　It　can　be　shown　that　in　the　thirteenth　century　the　Italians　recognized　　a　Mohammedan　ideal　of　nobleness；　dignity；　and　pride；　which　they　loved　　to　connect　with　the　person　of　a　Sultan。　A　Mameluke　Sultan　is　commonly　　meant；　if　any　name　is　mentioned；　it　is　the　name　of　Saladin。　Even　the　　Osmanli　Turks；　whose　destructive　tendencies　were　no　secret；　gave　the　　Italians　only　half　a　fright；　and　a　peaceable　accord　with　them　was　　looked　upon　as　no　impossibility。

The　truest　and　most　characteristic　expression　of　this　religious　　indifference　is　the　famous　story　of　the　Three　Rings；　which　Lessing　has　　put　into　the　mouth　of　his　Nathan；　after　it　had　been　already　told　　centuries　earlier；　though　with　some　reserve；　in　the　'Hundred　Old　　Novels'　（nov。　12　or　73）；　and　more　boldly　in　Boccaccio　（Decamerone；　i；　　nov。　3）。　In　what　language　and　in　what　corner　of　the　Mediterranean　it　　was　first　told　can　never　be　known；　most　likely　the　original　was　much　　more　plain…spoken　than　the　two　Italian　adaptations。　The　religious　　postulate　on　which　it　rests；　namely　Deism；　will　be　discussed　later　on　　in　its　wider　significance　for　this　period。　The　same　idea　is　repeated；　　though　in　a　clumsy　caricature；　in　the　famous　proverb　of　the　'three　who　　have　deceived　the　world；　that　is；　Moses；　Christ；　and　Mohammed。'　If　the　　Emperor　Frederick　II；　in　whom　this　saying　is　said　to　have　originated；　　really　thought　so；　he　probably　expressed　himself　with　more　wit。

Ideas　of　the　same　kind　were　also　current　in　Islam。　At　the　height　of　the　　Renaissance；　towards　the　close　of　the　fifteenth　century；　Luigi　Pulci　　offers　us　an　example　of　the　same　mode　of　thought　in　the　'Morgante　　Maggiore。'　The　imaginary　world　of　which　his　story　treats　is　divided；　as　　in　all　heroic　poems　of　romance；　into　a　Christian　and　a　Mohammedan　camp。　　In　accordance　with　the　medieval　temper；　the　victory　of　the　Christian　　and　the　final　reconciliation　among　the　combatants　was　attended　by　the　　baptism　of　the　defeated　Islamites；　and　the　Improvisatori；　who　preceded　　Pulci　in　the　treatment　of　these　subjects；　must　have　made　free　use　of　　this　stock　incident。　It　was　Pulci's　object　to　parody　his　predecessors；　　particularly　the　worst　among　them；　and　this　he　does　by　the　invocations　　of　God；　Christ；　and　the　Madonna；　with　which　each　canto　begins；　and　　still　more　clearly　by　the　sudden　conversions　and　baptisms；　the　utter　　senselessness　of　which　must　have　struck　every　reader　or　hearer。　This　　ridicule　leads　him　further　to　the　confession　of　his　faith　in　the　　relative　goodness　of　all　religions；　which　faith；　notwithstanding　his　　profession　of　orthodoxy；　rests　on　an　essentially　theistic　basis。　In　　another　point；　too；　he　departs　widely　from　mediaeval　conceptions。　The　　alternatives　in　past　centuries　were：　Christian；　or　else　Pagan　and　　Mohammedan；　orthodox　believer　or　heretic。　Pulci　draws　a　picture　of　the　　Giant　Margutte　who；　disregarding　each　and　every　religion；　jovially　　confesses　to　every　form　of　vice　and　sensuality；　and　only　reserves　to　　himself　the　merit　of　having　never　broken　faith。　Perhaps　the　poet　　intended　to　make　something　of　thisin　his　wayhonest　monster；　　possibly　to　have　led　him　into　virtuous　paths　by　Morgante；　but　he　soon　　got　tired　of　his　own　creation；　and　in　the　next　canto　brought　him　to　a　　comic　end。　Margutte　has　been　brought　forward　as　a　proof　of　Pulci's　　frivolity；　but　he　is　needed　to　complete　the　picture　of　the　poetry　of　　the　fifteenth　century。　It　was　natural　that　it　should　somewhere　present　　in　grotesque　proportions　the　figure　of　an　untamed　egotism；　insensible　　to　all　established　rule；　and　yet　with　a　remnant　of　honorable　feeling　　left。　In　other　poems　sentiments　are　put　into　the　mouths　of　giants；　　fiends；　infidels；　and　Mohammedans　which　no　Christian　knight　would　　venture　to　utter。

Antiquity　exercised　an　influence　of　another　kind　than　that　of　Islam；　　and　this　not　through　its　religion；　which　was　but　too　much　like　the　　Catholicism　of　this　period；　but　through　its　philosophy。　Ancient　　literature；　now　respected　as　something　incomparable；　is　full　of　the　　victory　of　philosophy　over　religious　tradition。　An　endless　number　of　　systems　and　fragments　of　systems　were　suddenly　presented　to　the　Italian　　mind；　not　as　curiosities　or　even　as　heresies；　but　almost　with　the　　authority　of　dogmas；　which　had　now　to　be　reconciled　rather　than　　discriminated。　In　nearly　all　these　various　opinions　and　doctrines　a　　certain　kind　of　belief　in　God　was　implied；　but　taken　altogether　they　　formed　a　marked　contrast　to　the　Christian　faith　in　a　Divine　government　　of　the　world。　And　there　was　one　central　question；　which　mediaeval　　theology　had　striven　in　vain　to　solve；　and　which　now　urgently　demanded　　an　answer　from　the　wisdom　of　the　ancients；　namely；　the　relation　of　　Providence　to　the　freedom　or　necessity　of　the　human　will。　To　write　the　　history　of　this　question　even　superficially　from　the　fourteenth　century　　onwards；　would　require　a　whole　volume。　A　few　hints　must　here　suffice。

If　we　take　Dante　and　his　contemporaries　as　evidence；　we　shall　find　that　　ancient　philosophy　first　came　into　contact　with　Italian　life　in　the　　form　which　offered　the　most　marked　contrast　to　Christianity；　that　is　to　　say；　Epicureanism。　The　writings　of　Epicurus　were　no　longer　preserved；　　and　even　at　the　close　of　the　classical　age　a　more　or　less　one…sided　　conception　had　been　formed　of　his　philosophy。　Nevertheless；　that　phase　　of　Epicureanism　which　can　be　studied　in　Lucretius；　and　especially　in　　Cicero；　is　quite　sufficient　to　make　men　familiar　with　a　godless　　universe。　To　what　extent　his　teaching　was　actually　understood；　and　　whether　the　name　of　the　problematic　Greek　sage　was　not　rather　a　　catchword　for　the　multitude；　it　is　hard　to　say。　It　is　probable　that　the　　Dominican　Inquisition　used　it　against　men　who　could　not　be　reached　by　a　　more　definite　accusation。　In　the　case　of　sceptics　born　before　the　time　　was　ripe；　whom　it　was　yet　hard　to　convict　of　positive　heretical　　utterances；　a　moderate　degree　of　luxurious　living　may　have　sufficed　to　　provoke　the　charge。　The　word　is　used　in　this　conventional　sense　by　　Giovanni　Villani；　when　he　explains　the　Florentine　fires　of　1115　and　　1117　as　a　Divine　judgement　on　heresies；　among　others；　'on　the　luxurious　　and　gluttonous　sect　of　Epicureans。'　The　same　writer　says　of　Manfred；　　'His　life　was　Epicurean；　since　he　believed　neither　in　God；　nor　in　the　　Saints；　but　only　in　bodily　pleasure。'

Dante　speaks　still　more　clearly　in　the　ninth　and　tenth　cantos　of　the　　'Inferno。'　That　terrible　fiery　field　covered　with　half…opened　tombs；　　from　which　issued　cries　of　hopeless　agony；　was　peopled　by　the　two　great　　classes　of　those　whom　the　Church　had　vanquished　or　expelled　in　the　　thirteenth　century。　The　one　were　heretics　who　opposed　the　Church　by　　deliberately　spreading　false　doctrine；　the　other　were　Epicureans；　and　　their　sin　against　the　Church　lay　in　their　general　disposition；　which　　was　summed　up　in　the　belief　that　the　soul　dies　with　the　body。　The　　Church　was　well　aware　that　this　one　doctrine；　if　it　gained　ground；　must　　be　more　ruinous　to　her　authority　than　all　the　teachings　of　the　　Manichaeans　and　Paterines；　since　it　took　away　all　reason　for　her　　interference　in　the　affairs　of　men　after　death。　That　the　means　which　　she　used　in　her　struggles　were　precisely　what　had　driven　the　most　　gifted　natures　to　unbelief　and　despair　was　what　she　naturally　would　not　　herself　admit。

Dante's　loathing　of　Epicurus；　or　of　what　he　took　to　be　his　doctrine；　　was　certainly　sincere。　The　poet　of　the　life　to　come　could　not　but　　detest　the　denier　of　immortality；　and　a　world　neither　made　nor　ruled　by　　God；　no　less　than　the　vulgar　objects　of　earthly　life　which　the　system　　appeared　to　countenance；　could　not　but　be　intensely　repugnant　to　a　　nature　like　his。　But　if　we　look　closer；　we　find　that　certain　doctrines　　of　the　ancients　made　even　on　him　an　impression　which　forced　the　　biblical　doctrine　of　the　Divine　government　into　the　background　unless；　　indeed；　it　was　his　own　reflection；　the　influence　of　opinions　then　　prevalent；　or　loathing　for　the　injustice　that　seemed　to　rule　this　　world；　which　made　him　give　up　the　belief　in　a　special　Providence　His　　God　leaves　all　the　details　of　the　world's　government　to　a　deputy；　　Fortune；　whose　sole　work　it　is　to　change　and　change　again　all　earthly　　thin