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toward      whom      they   entertain     no   group´hostility。      But   the   man     whose 

attention   is   fastened   upon   the   relations   of   a   group   with   those   whom   it 

hates or   fears   will   judge  quite   differently。  In   these  relations   a  surprising 

ferocity   is   apt   to   be   developed�察  �and   a   very   ugly   side   of   human   nature 

comes to the fore。 The opponents of capitalism have learned�察�through the 

study of certain historical facts�察�that this ferocity has often been shown by 

the    capitalists     and    by   the    State   toward      the   wage´earning        classes�察�

particularly   when   they   have   ventured   to   protest   against   the   unspeakable 

suffering      to  which    industrialism      has   usually    condemned        them。    Hence 

arises   a   quite   different   attitude   toward   existing   society   from   that   of   the 

ordinary   well´to´do   citizen�此  �an   attitude   as   true   as   his�察  �perhaps   also   as 

untrue�察  �but   equally   based   on   facts�察  �facts   concerning   his   relations   to   his 

enemies instead of to his friends。 

     The     class´war�察   �like   wars    between     nations�察   �produces     two    opposing 

views�察�each equally true and equally untrue。 The citizen of a nation at war�察�

when he thinks of his own countrymen�察�thinks of them primarily as he has 

experienced them�察�in dealings with their friends�察�in their family relations�察�

and   so   on。   They   seem   to   him   on   the   whole   kindly�察  �decent   folk。   But   a 

nation with which his country is at war views his compatriots through the 

medium   of   a   quite   different   set   of   experiences�此  �as   they   appear   in   the 

ferocity of battle�察�in the invasion and subjugation of a hostile territory�察�or 

in the chicanery of a juggling diplomacy。 The men of whom these facts are 



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true   are  the   very  same    as  the  men    whom   their    compatriots    know    as 

husbands or fathers or friends�察�but they are judged differently because they 

are judged on different data。 And so it is with those who view the capitalist 

from     the   standpoint    of   the  revolutionary     wage´earner�此     �they   appear 

inconceivably  cynical   and   misjudging   to   the   capitalist�察  �because the   facts 

upon which their view is based are facts which he either does not know or 

habitually ignores。 Yet the view from the outside is just as true as the view 

from the inside。 Both are necessary to the complete truth�察�and the Socialist�察�

who emphasizes the outside view�察�is not a cynic�察�but merely the friend of 

the wage´earners�察�maddened by the spectacle of the needless misery which 

capitalism inflicts upon them。 

     I have placed these general reflections at the beginning of our study�察�in 

order to make it clear to the reader that�察�whatever bitterness and hate may 

be found in the movements which we are to examine�察�it is not bitterness or 

hate�察�but love�察�that is their mainspring。 It is difficult not to hate those who 

torture the objects of our love。 Though difficult�察�it is not impossible�察�but it 

requires a breadth of outlook and a comprehensiveness of understanding 

which     are  not  easy   to  preserve    amid   a  desperate    contest。   If  ultimate 

wisdom has not always been preserved by Socialists and Anarchists�察�they 

have not differed in this from their opponents�察�and in the source of their 

inspiration they have shown themselves superior to those who acquiesce 

ignorantly   or    supinely   in  the  injustices   and   oppressions   by   which    the 

existing system is preserved。 



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                                       PART I 



                                      HISTORICAL 



                                     CHAPTER I 



                      MARX AND SOCIALIST DOCTRINE 

       SOCIALISM�察�like  everything   else   that   is vital�察 �is   rather  a  tendency 

than a strictly definable body of doctrine。 A definition of Socialism is sure 

either to include some views which many would regard as not Socialistic�察�

or to exclude others which claim to be included。 But I think we shall come 

nearest   to   the   essence   of   Socialism   by   defining   it   as   the   advocacy   of 

communal        ownership     of  land   and   capital。  Communal       ownership      may 

mean   ownership   by   a   democratic   State�察  �but   cannot   be   held   to   include 

ownership   by   any   State   which   is   not   democratic。   Communal   ownership 

may also be understood�察�as Anarchist Communism understands it�察�in the 

sense   of   ownership   by   the   free   association   of   the   men   and   women   in   a 

community       without    those   compulsory      powers     which    are  necessary     to 

constitute a State。 Some Socialists expect communal ownership to arrive 

suddenly and completely by a catastrophic revolution�察�while others expect 

it   to   come   gradually�察  �first   in   one   industry�察  �then   in   another。   Some   insist 

upon the necessity of completeness in the acquisition of land and capital 

by  the   public�察  �while   others   would   be   content   to   see   lingering   islands   of 

private   ownership�察     �provided   they   were   not    too  extensive    or  powerful。 

What all forms have in common is democracy and the abolition�察�virtual or 

complete�察     �of  the  present    capitalistic   system。    The   distinction    between 

Socialists�察   �Anarchists     and   Syndicalists    turns   largely  upon    the  kind   of 

democracy       which     they   desire。   Orthodox     Socialists    are   content    with 

parliamentary   democracy   in   the   sphere   of   government�察  �holding   that   the 

evils apparent in this form of constitution at present would disappear with 

the disappearance of capitalism。 Anarchists and Syndicalists�察�on the other 

hand�察�object to the whole parliamentary machinery�察�and aim at a different 

method of regulating the political affairs of the community。 But all alike 

are   democratic   in   the   sense   that   they   aim   at   abolishing   every   kind   of 



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                             PROPOSED ROADS TO FREEDOM 



privilege and every kind of artificial inequality�此�all alike are champions of 

the wage´ earner in existing society。 All three also have much in common 

in their economic doctrine。 All three regard capital and the wages system 

as   a   means   of   exploiting   the   laborer   in   the   interests   of   the   possessing 

classes�察�and hold that communal ownership�察�in one form or another�察�is the 

only     means     of   bringing     freedom      to  the   producers。      But    within    the 

framework of this common doctrine there are many divergences�察�and even 

among      those    who    are   strictly  to  be   called   Socialists�察   �there   is  a  very 

considerable diversity of schools。 

     Socialism as a power in Europe may be said to begin with Marx。 It is 

true that before his time there were Socialist theories�察�both in England and 

in   France。   It   is   also   true   that   in   France�察  �during   the   revolution   of   1848�察�

Socialism for a brief period acquired considerable influence in the State。 

But    the   Socialists    who    preceded      Marx    tended     to  indulge    in  Utopian 

dreams and failed to found any strong or stable political party。 To Marx�察�in 

collaboration with Engels�察�are due both the formulation of a coherent body 

of Socialist doctrine�察�sufficiently true or plausible to dominate the minds 

of vast numbers of men�察�and the formation of the International   Socialist 

movement�察       �which     h

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