the story of mankind-第58章

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he　could　at　the　court。　Soon　his　estates　began　to　suffer　from

that　very　dangerous　economic　sickness；　known　as　‘‘Absentee

Landlordism。''　Within　a　single　generation；　the　industrious

and　useful　feudal　administrators　had　become　the　well…mannered

but　quite　useless　loafers　of　the　court　of　Versailles。



Louis　was　ten　years　old　when　the　peace　of　Westphalia　was

concluded　and　the　House　of　Habsburg；　as　a　result　of　the

Thirty　Years　War；　lost　its　predominant　position　in　Europe。

It　was　inevitable　that　a　man　with　his　ambition　should　use　so

favourable　a　moment　to　gain　for　his　own　dynasty　the　honours

which　had　formerly　been　held　by　the　Habsburgs。　In　the　year

1660　Louis　had　married　Maria　Theresa；　daughter　of　the　King

of　Spain。　Soon　afterward；　his　father…in…law；　Philip　IV；　one

of　the　half…witted　Spanish　Habsburgs；　died。　At　once　Louis

claimed　the　Spanish　Netherlands　（Belgium）　as　part　of　his

wife's　dowry。　Such　an　acquisition　would　have　been　disastrous

to　the　peace　of　Europe；　and　would　have　threatened　the　safety

of　the　Protestant　states。　Under　the　leadership　of　Jan　de　Witt；

Raadpensionaris　or　Foreign　Minister　of　the　United　Seven

Netherlands；　the　first　great　international　alliance；　the　Triple

Alliance　of　Sweden；　England　and　Holland；　of　the　year　1661；

was　concluded。　It　did　not　last　long。　With　money　and　fair

promises　Louis　bought　up　both　King　Charles　and　the　Swedish

Estates。　Holland　was　betrayed　by　her　allies　and　was　left　to

her　own　fate。　In　the　year　1672　the　French　invaded　the　low

countries。　They　marched　to　the　heart　of　the　country。　For　a

second　time　the　dikes　were　opened　and　the　Royal　Sun　of

France　set　amidst　the　mud　of　the　Dutch　marshes。　The　peace

of　Nimwegen　which　was　concluded　in　1678　settled　nothing　but

merely　anticipated　another　war。



A　second　war　of　aggression　from　1689　to　1697；　ending　with

the　Peace　of　Ryswick；　also　failed　to　give　Louis　that　position　in

the　affairs　of　Europe　to　which　he　aspired。　His　old　enemy；

Jan　de　Witt；　had　been　murdered　by　the　Dutch　rabble；　but　his

successor；　William　III　（whom　you　met　in　the　last　chapter）；

had　checkmated　all　efforts　of　Louis　to　make　France　the　ruler　of

Europe。



The　great　war　for　the　Spanish　succession；　begun　in　the

year　1701；　immediately　after　the　death　of　Charles　II；　the　last

of　the　Spanish　Habsburgs；　and　ended　in　1713　by　the　Peace

of　Utrecht；　remained　equally　undecided；　but　it　had　ruined　the

treasury　of　Louis。　On　land　the　French　king　had　been　victorious；

but　the　navies　of　England　and　Holland　had　spoiled　all

hope　for　an　ultimate　French　victory；　besides　the　long　struggle

had　given　birth　to　a　new　and　fundamental　principle　of　international

politics；　which　thereafter　made　it　impossible　for　one

single　nation　to　rule　the　whole　of　Europe　or　the　whole　of　the

world　for　any　length　of　time。



That　was　the　so…called　‘‘balance　of　power。''　It　was　not　a

written　law　but　for　three　centuries　it　has　been　obeyed　as　closely

as　are　the　laws　of　nature。　The　people　who　originated　the　idea

maintained　that　Europe；　in　its　nationalistic　stage　of　development；

could　only　survive　when　there　should　be　an　absolute　balance

of　the　many　conflicting　interests　of　the　entire　continent。

No　single　power　or　single　dynasty　must　ever　be　allowed　to

dominate　the　others。　During　the　Thirty　Years　War；　the

Habsburgs　had　been　the　victims　of　the　application　of　this　law。

They；　however；　had　been　unconscious　victims。　The　issues　during

that　struggle　were　so　clouded　in　a　haze　of　religious　strife

that　we　do　not　get　a　very　clear　view　of　the　main　tendencies

of　that　great　conflict。　But　from　that　time　on；　we　begin　to　see

how　cold；　economic　considerations　and　calculations　prevail　in

all　matters　of　international　importance。　We　discover　the

development　of　a　new　type　of　statesman；　the　statesman　with　the

personal　feelings　of　the　slide…rule　and　the　cash…register。　Jan

de　Witt　was　the　first　successful　exponent　of　this　new　school

of　politics。　William　III　was　the　first　great　pupil。　And　Louis

XIV　with　all　his　fame　and　glory；　was　the　first　conscious　victim。

There　have　been　many　others　since。







THE　RISE　OF　RUSSIA



THE　STORY　OF　THE　MYSTERIOUS　MOSCOVITE

EMPIRE　WHICH　SUDDENLY　BURST　UPON

THE　GRAND　POLITICAL　STAGE　OF　EUROPE





IN　the　year　1492；　as　you　know；　Columbus　discovered　America。

Early　in　the　year；　a　Tyrolese　by　the　name　of　Schnups；

travelling　as　the　head　of　a　scientific　expedition　for　the

Archbishop　of　Tyrol；　and　provided　with　the　best　letters

of　introduction　and　excellent　credit　tried　to　reach　the　mythical

town　of　Moscow。　He　did　not　succeed。　When　he　reached　the

frontiers　of　this　vast　Moscovite　state　which　was　vaguely　supposed

to　exist　in　the　extreme　Eastern　part　of　Europe；　he　was

firmly　turned　back。　No　foreigners　were　wanted。　And

Schnups　went　to　visit　the　heathen　Turk　in　Constantinople；　in

order　that　he　might　have　something　to　report　to　his　clerical

master　when　he　came　back　from　his　explorations。



Sixty…one　years　later；　Richard　Chancellor；　trying　to　discover

the　North…eastern　passage　to　the　Indies；　and　blown　by

an　ill　wind　into　the　White　Sea；　reached　the　mouth　of　the　Dwina

and　found　the　Moscovite　village　of　Kholmogory；　a　few　hours

from　the　spot　where　in　1584　the　town　of　Archangel　was　founded。

This　time　the　foreign　visitors　were　requested　to　come

to　Moscow　and　show　themselves　to　the　Grand　Duke。　They

went　and　returned　to　England　with　the　first　commercial　treaty

ever　concluded　between　Russia　and　the　western　world。　Other

nations　soon　followed　and　something　became　known　of　this

mysterious　land。



Geographically；　Russia　is　a　vast　plain。　The　Ural　mountains

are　low　and　form　no　barrier　against　invaders。　The

rivers　are　broad　but　often　shallow。　It　was　an　ideal　territory　for

nomads。



While　the　Roman　Empire　was　founded；　grew　in　power　and

disappeared　again；　Slavic　tribes；　who　had　long　since　left　their

homes　in　Central　Asia；　wandered　aimlessly　through　the　forests

and　plains　of　the　region　between　the　Dniester　and　Dnieper

rivers。　The　Greeks　had　sometimes　met　these　Slavs　and　a　few

travellers　of　the　third　and　fourth　centuries　mention　them。

Otherwise　they　were　as　little　known　as　were　the　Nevada　Indians

in　the　year　1800。



Unfortunately　for　the　peace　of　these　primitive　peoples；　a

very　convenient　trade…route　ran　through　their　country。　This

was　the　main　road　from　northern　Europe　to　Constantinople。

It　followed　the　coast　of　the　Baltic　until　the　Neva　was　reached。

Then　it　crossed　Lake　Ladoga　and　went　southward　along　the

Volkhov　river。　Then　through　Lake　Ilmen　and　up　the　small

Lovat　river。　Then　there　was　a　short　portage　until　the　Dnieper

was　reached。　Then　down　the　Dnieper　into　the　Black　Sea。



The　Norsemen　knew　of　this　road　at　a　very　early　date。　In

the　ninth　century　they　began　to　settle　in　northern　Russia；　just

as　other　Norsemen　were　laying　the　foundation　for　independent

states　in　Germany　and　France。　But　in　the　year　862；　three

Norsemen；　brothers；　crossed　the　Baltic　and　founded　three　small

dynasties。　Of　the　three　brothers；　only　one；　Rurik；　lived　for　a

number　of　years。　He　took　possession　of　the　territory　of　his

brothers；　and　twenty　years　after　the　arrival　of　this　first

Norseman；　a　Slavic　state　had　been　established　with　Kiev　as　its

capital。



From　Kiev　to　the　Black　Sea　is　a　short　distance。　Soon　the

existence　of　an　organised　Slavic　State　became　known　in

Constantinople。　This　meant　a　new　field　for　the　zealous

missionaries　of　the　Christian　faith。　Byzantine　monks　followed　the

Dnieper　on　their　way　northward　and　soon　reached　the　heart　of

Russia。　They　found　the　people　worshipping　strange　gods

who　were　supposed　to　dwell　in　woods　and　rivers　and　in　mountain

caves。　They　taught　them　the　story　of　Jesus。　There　was

no　competition　from　the　side　of　Roman　missionaries。　These

good　men　were　too　busy　educating　the　heathen　Teutons　to

bother　about　the　distant　Slavs。　Hence　Russia　received　its　religion

and　its　alphabet　and　its　first　ideas　of　art　and　architecture

from　the　Byzantine　monks　and　a