the story of mankind-第80章

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of　the　privileges　of　all　civilised　governments。　When　the　‘‘edited''

telegram　was　printed；　the　good　people　in　Berlin　felt　that

their　old　and　venerable　king　with　his　nice　white　whiskers　had

been　insulted　by　an　arrogant　little　Frenchman　and　the　equally

good　people　of　Paris　flew　into　a　rage　because　their　perfectly

courteous　minister　had　been　shown　the　door　by　a　Royal　Prussian

flunkey。



And　so　they　both　went　to　war　and　in　less　than　two　months；

Napoleon　and　the　greater　part　of　his　army　were　prisoners　of

the　Germans。　The　Second　Empire　had　come　to　an　end　and　the

Third　Republic　was　making　ready　to　defend　Paris　against　the

German　invaders。　Paris　held　out　for　five　long　months。　Ten

days　before　the　surrender　of　the　city；　in　the　nearby　palace　of

Versailles；　built　by　that　same　King　Louis　XIV　who　had　been

such　a　dangerous　enemy　to　the　Germans；　the　King　of　Prussia

was　publicly　proclaimed　German　Emperor　and　a　loud　booming

of　guns　told　the　hungry　Parisians　that　a　new　German　Empire

had　taken　the　place　of　the　old　harmless　Confederation　of　Teutonic

states　and　stateless。



In　this　rough　way；　the　German　question　was　finally　settled。

By　the　end　of　the　year　1871；　fifty…six　years　after　the　memorable

gathering　at　Vienna；　the　work　of　the　Congress　had　been　entirely

undone。　Metternich　and　Alexander　and　Talleyrand　had　tried

to　give　the　people　of　Europe　a　lasting　peace。　The　methods

they　had　employed　had　caused　endless　wars　and　revolutions　and

the　feeling　of　a　common　brotherhood　of　the　eighteenth　century

was　followed　by　an　era　of　exaggerated　nationalism　which　has

not　yet　come　to　an　end。







THE　AGE　OF　THE　ENGINE



BUT　WHILE　THE　PEOPLE　OF　EUROPE　WERE

FIGHTING　FOR　THEIR　NATIONAL

INDEPENDENCE；　THE　WORLD　IN　WHICH　THEY

LIVED　HAD　BEEN　ENTIRELY　CHANGED

BY　A　SERIES　OF　INVENTIONS；　WHICH　HAD

MADE　THE　CLUMSY　OLD　STEAM　ENGINE

OF　THE　18TH　CENTURY　THE　MOST　FAITHFUL

AND　EFFICIENT　SLAVE　OF　MAN





THE　greatest　benefactor　of　the　human　race　died　more　than

half　a　million　years　ago。　He　was　a　hairy　creature　with　a　low

brow　and　sunken　eyes；　a　heavy　jaw　and　strong　tiger…like　teeth。

He　would　not　have　looked　well　in　a　gathering　of　modern　scientists；

but　they　would　have　honoured　him　as　their　master。　For

he　had　used　a　stone　to　break　a　nut　and　a　stick　to　lift　up　a　heavy

boulder。　He　was　the　inventor　of　the　hammer　and　the　lever；　our

first　tools；　and　he　did　more　than　any　human　being　who　came

after　him　to　give　man　his　enormous　advantage　over　the　other

animals　with　whom　he　shares　this　planet。



Ever　since；　man　has　tried　to　make　his　life　easier　by　the　use

of　a　greater　number　of　tools。　The　first　wheel　（a　round　disc

made　out　of　an　old　tree）　created　as　much　stir　in　the　communities

of　100；000　B。C。　as　the　flying　machine　did　only　a　few　years

ago。



In　Washington；　the　story　is　told　of　a　director　of　the　Patent

Office　who　in　the　early　thirties　of　the　last　century　suggested

that　the　Patent　Office　be　abolished；　because　‘‘everything　that

possibly　could　be　invented　had　been　invented。''　A　similar

feeling　must　have　spread　through　the　prehistoric　world　when

the　first　sail　was　hoisted　on　a　raft　and　the　people　were　able

to　move　from　place　to　place　without　rowing　or　punting　or

pulling　from　the　shore。



Indeed　one　of　the　most　interesting　chapters　of　history　is

the　effort　of　man　to　let　some　one　else　or　something　else　do　his

work　for　him；　while　he　enjoyed　his　leisure；　sitting　in　the　sun

or　painting　pictures　on　rocks；　or　training　young　wolves　and

little　tigers　to　behave　like　peaceful　domestic　animals。



Of　course　in　the　very　olden　days；　it　was　always　possible

to　enslave　a　weaker　neighbour　and　force　him　to　do　the　unpleasant

tasks　of　life。　One　of　the　reasons　why　the　Greeks　and

Romans；　who　were　quite　as　intelligent　as　we　are；　failed　to

devise　more　interesting　machinery；　was　to　be　found　in　the　wide…

spread　existence　of　slavery。　Why　should　a　great　mathematician

waste　his　time　upon　wires　and　pulleys　and　cogs　and　fill

the　air　with　noise　and　smoke　when　he　could　go　to　the　marketplace

and　buy　all　the　slaves　he　needed　at　a　very　small　expense？



And　during　the　middle…ages；　although　slavery　had　been

abolished　and　only　a　mild　form　of　serfdom　survived；　the　guilds

discouraged　the　idea　of　using　machinery　because　they　thought

this　would　throw　a　large　number　of　their　brethren　out　of

work。　Besides；　the　Middle…Ages　were　not　at　all　interested

in　producing　large　quantities　of　goods。　Their　tailors　and　butchers

and　carpenters　worked　for　the　immediate　needs　of　the　small

community　in　which　they　lived　and　had　no　desire　to　compete

with　their　neighbours；　or　to　produce　more　than　was　strictly

necessary。



During　the　Renaissance；　when　the　prejudices　of　the　Church

against　scientific　investigations　could　no　longer　be　enforced　as

rigidly　as　before；　a　large　number　of　men　began　to　devote　their

lives　to　mathematics　and　astronomy　and　physics　and　chemistry。

Two　years　before　the　beginning　of　the　Thirty　Years　War；

John　Napier；　a　Scotchman；　had　published　his　little　book　which

described　the　new　invention　of　logarithms。　During　the　war　it…

self；　Gottfried　Leibnitz　of　Leipzig　had　perfected　the　system　of

infinitesimal　calculus。　Eight　years　before　the　peace　of　Westphalia；

Newton；　the　great　English　natural　philosopher；　was

born；　and　in　that　same　year　Galileo；　the　Italian　astronomer；

died。　Meanwhile　the　Thirty　Years　War　had　destroyed　the　prosperity

of　central　Europe　and　there　was　a　sudden　but　very　general

interest　in　‘‘alchemy；''　the　strange　pseudo…science　of　the

middle…ages　by　which　people　hoped　to　turn　base　metals　into

gold。　This　proved　to　be　impossible　but　the　alchemists　in　their

laboratories　stumbled　upon　many　new　ideas　and　greatly　helped

the　work　of　the　chemists　who　were　their　successors。



The　work　of　all　these　men　provided　the　world　with　a　solid

scientific　foundation　upon　which　it　was　possible　to　build　even

the　most　complicated　of　engines；　and　a　number　of　practical

men　made　good　use　of　it。　The　Middle…Ages　had　used　wood　for

the　few　bits　of　necessary　machinery。　But　wood　wore　out

easily。　Iron　was　a　much　better　material　but　iron　was　scarce

except　in　England。　In　England　therefore　most　of　the　smelting

was　done。　To　smelt　iron；　huge　fires　were　needed。　In　the

beginning；　these　fires　had　been　made　of　wood；　but　gradually

the　forests　had　been　used　up。　Then　‘‘stone　coal''　（the　petrified

trees　of　prehistoric　times）　was　used。　But　coal　as　you

know　has　to　be　dug　out　of　the　ground　and　it　has　to　be　transported

to　the　smelting　ovens　and　the　mines　have　to　be　kept

dry　from　the　ever　invading　waters。



These　were　two　problems　which　had　to　be　solved　at　once。

For　the　time　being；　horses　could　still　be　used　to　haul　the　coal…

wagons；　but　the　pumping　question　demanded　the　application

of　special　machinery。　Several　inventors　were　busy　trying　to

solve　the　difficulty。　They　all　knew　that　steam　would　have　to

be　used　in　their　new　engine。　The　idea　of　the　steam　engine　was

very　old。　Hero　of　Alexandria；　who　lived　in　the　first　century

before　Christ；　has　described　to　us　several　bits　of　machinery

which　were　driven　by　steam。　The　people　of　the　Renaissance

had　played　with　the　notion　of　steam…driven　war　chariots。　The

Marquis　of　Worcester；　a　contemporary　of　Newton；　in　his　book

of　inventions；　tells　of　a　steam　engine。　A　little　later；　in　the　year

1698；　Thomas　Savery　of　London　applied　for　a　patent　for　a

pumping　engine。　At　the　same　time；　a　Hollander；　Christian

Huygens；　was　trying　to　perfect　an　engine　in　which　gun…powder

was　used　to　cause　regular　explosions　in　much　the　same　way　as

we　use　gasoline　in　our　motors。



All　over　Europe；　people　were　busy　with　the　idea。　Denis

Papin；　a　Frenchman；　friend　and　assistant　of　Huygens；　was

making　experiments　with　steam　engines　in　several　countries。

He　invented　a　little　wagon　that　was　driven　by　steam；　and　a

paddle…wheel　boat。　But　when　he　tried　to　take　a　trip　in　his

vessel；　it　was　confiscated　by　the　authorities　on　a　complaint　of

the　boatmen's　u