prel-第4章

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inhabitants　are　in　a　condition；　as　to　subsistence　and　comfort；　as

little　enviable　as　that　of　the　savage。

　　　　The　first　great　advance　beyond　this　state　consists　in　the

domestication　of　the　more　useful　animals；　giving　rise　to　the

pastoral　or　nomad　state；　in　which　mankind　do　not　live　on　the

produce　of　hunting；　but　on　milk　and　its　products；　and　on　the

annual　increase　of　flocks　and　herds。　This　condition　is　not　only

more　desirable　in　itself；　but　more　conducive　to　further　progress：

and　a　much　more　considerable　amount　of　wealth　is　accumulated

under　it。　So　long　as　the　vast　natural　pastures　of　the　earth　are

not　yet　so　fully　occupied　as　to　be　consumed　more　rapidly　than

they　are　spontaneously　reproduced；　a　large　and　constantly

increasing　stock　of　subsistence　may　be　collected　and　preserved；

with　little　other　labour　than　that　of　guarding　the　cattle　from

the　attacks　of　wild　beasts；　and　from　the　force　or　wiles　of

predatory　men。　Large　flocks　and　herds；　therefore；　are　in　time

possessed；　by　active　and　thrifty　individuals　through　their　own

exertions；　and　by　the　heads　of　families　and　tribes　through　the

exertions　of　those　who　are　connected　with　them　by　allegiance。

There　thus　arises；　in　the　shepherd　state；　inequality　of

possessions；　a　thing　which　scarcely　exists　in　the　savage　state；

where　no　one　has　much　more　than　absolute　necessaries；　and　in　case

of　deficiency　must　share　even　those　with　his　tribe。　In　the　nomad

state；　some　have　an　abundance　of　cattle；　sufficient　for　the　food

of　a　multitude；　while　others　have　not　contrived　to　appropriate

and　retain　any　superfluity；　or　perhaps　any　cattle　at　all。　But

subsistence　has　ceased　to　be　precarious；　since　the　more

successful　have　no　other　use　which　they　can　make　of　their　surplus

than　to　feed　the　less　fortunate；　while　every　increase　in　the

number　of　persons　connected　with　them　is　an　increase　both　of

security　and　of　power：　and　thus　they　are　enabled　to　divest

themselves　of　all　labour　except　that　of　government　and

superintendence；　and　acquire　dependents　to　fight　for　them　in　war

and　to　serve　them　in　peace。　One　of　the　features　of　this　state　of

society　is；　that　a　part　of　the　community；　and　in　some　degree　even

the　whole　of　it；　possess　leisure。　Only　a　portion　of　time　is

required　for　procuring　food；　and　the　remainder　is　not　engrossed

by　anxious　thought　for　the　morrow；　or　necessary　repose　from

muscular　activity。　Such　a　life　is　highly　favourable　to　the　growth

of　new　wants；　and　opens　a　possibility　of　their　gratification。　A

desire　arises　for　better　clothing；　utensils；　and　implements；　than

the　savage　state　contents　itself　with；　and　the　surplus　food

renders　it　practicable　to　devote　to　these　purposes　the　exertions

of　a　part　of　the　tribe。　In　all　or　most　nomad　communities　we　find

domestic　manufactures　of　a　coarse；　and　in　some；　of　a　fine　kind。

There　is　ample　evidence　that　while　those　parts　of　the　world　which

have　been　the　cradle　of　modern　civilization　were　still　generally

in　the　nomad　state；　considerable　skill　had　been　attained　in

spinning；　weaving；　and　dyeing　woollen　garments；　in　the

preparation　of　leather；　and　in　what　appears　a　still　more

difficult　invention；　that　of　working　in　metals。　Even　speculative

science　took　its　first　beginnings　from　the　leisure　characteristic

of　this　stage　of　social　progress。　The　earliest　astronomical

observations　are　attributed；　by　a　tradition　which　has　much

appearance　of　truth；　to　the　shepherds　of　Chaldea。

　　　　From　this　state　of　society　to　the　agricultural　the　transition

is　not　indeed　easy　（for　no　great　change　in　the　habits　of　mankind

is　otherwise　than　difficult；　and　in　general　either　painful　or

very　slow）；　but　it　lies　in　what　may　be　called　the　spontaneous

corse　of　events。　The　growth　of　the　population　of　men　and　cattle

began　in　time　to　press　upon　the　earth's　capabilities　of　yielding

natural　pasture：　and　this　cause　doubtless　produced　the　first

tilling　of　the　ground；　just　as　at　a　later　period　the　same　cause

made　the　superfluous　hordes　of　the　nations　which　had　remained

nomad　precipitate　themselves　upon　those　which　had　already　become

agricultural；　until；　these　having　become　sufficiently　powerful　to

repel　such　inroads；　the　invading　nations；　deprived　of　this

outlet；　were　obliged　also　to　become　agricultural　communities。

　　　　But　after　this　great　step　had　been　completed；　the　subsequent

progress　of　mankind　seems　by　no　means　to　have　been　so　rapid

（certain　rare　combinations　of　circumstances　excepted）　as　might

perhaps　have　been　anticipated。　The　quantity　of　human　food　which

the　earth　is　capable　of　returning　even　to　the　most　wretched

system　of　agriculture；　so　much　exceeds　what　could　be　obtained　in

the　purely　pastoral　state；　that　a　great　increase　of　population　is

invariably　the　result。　But　this　additional　food　is　only　obtained

by　a　great　additional　amount　of　labour；　so　that　not　only　an

agricultural　has　much　less　leisure　than　a　pastoral　population；

but；　with　the　imperfect　tools　and　unskilful　processes　which　are

for　a　long　time　employed　（and　which　over　the　greater　part　of　the

earth　have　not　even　yet　been　abandoned）；　agriculturists　do　not；

unless　in　unusually　advantageous　circumstances　of　climate　and

soil；　produce　so　great　a　surplus　of　food；　beyond　their　necessary

consumption；　as　to　support　any　large　class　of　labourers　engaged

in　other　departments　of　industry。　The　surplus；　too；　whether　small

or　great；　is　usually　torn　from　the　producers；　either　by　the

government　to　which　they　are　subject；　or　by　individuals；　who　by

superior　force；　or　by　availing　themselves　of　religious　or

traditional　feelings　of　subordination；　have　established

themselves　as　lords　of　the　soil。

　　　　The　first　of　these　modes　of　appropriation；　by　the　government；

is　characteristic　of　the　extensive　monarchies　which　from　a　time

beyond　historical　record　have　occupied　the　plains　of　Asia。　The

government；　in　those　countries；　though　varying　in　its　qualities

according　to　the　accidents　of　personal　character；　seldom　leaves

much　to　the　cultivators　beyond　mere　necessaries；　and　often　strips

them　so　bare　even　of　these；　that　it　finds　itself　obliged；　after

taking　all　they　have；　to　lend　part　of　it　back　to　those　from　whom

it　has　been　taken；　in　order　to　provide　them　with　seed；　and　enable

them　to　support　life　until　another　harvest。　Under　the　r間ime　in

question；　though　the　bulk　of　the　population　are　ill　provided　for；

the　government；　by　collecting　small　contributions　from　great

numbers；　is　enabled；　with　any　tolerable　management；　to　make　a

show　of　riches　quite　out　of　proportion　to　the　general　condition

of　the　society；　and　hence　the　inveterate　impression；　of　which

Europeans　have　only　at　a　late　period　been　disabused；　concerning

the　great　opulence　of　Oriental　nations。　In　this　wealth；　without

reckoning　the　large　portion　which　adheres　to　the　hands　employed

in　collecting　it；　many　persons　of　course　participate；　besides　the

immediate　household　of　the　sovereign。　A　large　part　is　distributed

among　the　various　functionaries　of　government；　and　among　the

objects　of　the　sovereign's　favour　or　caprice。　A　part　is

occasionally　employed　in　works　of　public　utility。　The　tanks；

wells；　and　canals　for　irrigation；　without　which　in　many　tropical

climates　cultivation　could　hardly　be　carried　on；　the　embankments

which　confine　the　rivers；　the　bazars　for　dealers；　and　the　seraees

for　travellers；　none　of　which　could　have　been　made　by　the　scanty

means　in　the　possession　of　those　using　them；　owe　their　existence

to　the　liberality　and　enlightened　self…interest　of　the　better

order　of　princes；　or　to　the　benevolence　or　ostentation　of　here

and　there　a　rich　individual；　whose　fortune；　if　traced　to　its

source；　is　always　found　to　have　been　drawn　immediately　or

remotely　from　the　public　revenue；　most　frequently　by　a　direct

grant　of　a　portion　of　it　from　the　sovereign。

　　　　The　ruler　of　a　society　of　this　description；　after　providing

largely　for　his　own　support；　and　that　of　all　persons　in　whom　he

feels　an　interest；　and　after　maintaining　as　many　soldiers　as　he

thinks　need