vill3-第4章
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sbandry；。 and in regard to his own strips； he must have perceived soon enough that it would be better to have them in one compact mass than scattered about in all the fields。 And still the open…field intermixture holds its ground all through the middle ages； and we find its survivals far into modern times。 This can only mean； that even when the shifting； 'ideal；' share in the land of the community had given way to the permanent ownership by each member of certain particular scattered strips； this permanent ownership did by no means amount to private property in the Roman or in the modern sense。 The communal principle with its equalising tendency remained still as the efficient force regulating the whole； and strong enough to subject even the lord and the freeholders to its customary influence。 By saying this I do not mean to maintain； of course； that private property was not existent； that it was not breaking through the communal system； and acting as a dissolvent of it。 I shall have to show by…and…by in what ways this process was effected。 But the fact remains； that the system which prevailed upon the whole during the middle ages appears directly connected in its most important features with ideas of communal ownership and equalised individual rights。 These ideas are carried out in a very rough way in the mediaeval arrangement of the holding； which is more complicated in England than on the continent。 According to a very common mode of reckoning； the hide contains four virgates； every virgate two bovates； and every bovate fifteen acres。 The bovate （oxgang） shows by its very name that not only the land is taken into account； but the oxen employed in its tillage； and the records explain the hide or carucate （23*） to be the land of the eight…oxen plough； that is so much land as may be cultivated by a plough drawn by eight oxen。 The virgate； or yard…land； being the fourth part of a hide； corresponds to one…fourth part of the plough； that is； to two oxen； contributed by the holder to the full plough…team； the bovate or oxgang appears as the land of one ox； and the eighth part of the hide。（24*） Such proportions are； as I said； very commonly found in the records； but they are by no means prevalent everywhere。 On the possessions of Glastonbury Abbey； for instance； we find virgates of forty acres； and a hide of 160； and the same reckoning appears in manors of Wetherall Priory； Westmoreland；（25*） of the Abbey of Eynsham； Oxfordshire；（26*） and many other places。 The so…called Domesday of St。 Paul's reports；（27*） that in Runwell eighty acres used to be reckoned to the hide； but in course of time new land was acquired （for tillage） and measured； and so the hide was raised to 120 acres。 Altogether the supposition of an uniform acre…measurement of bovates； virgates； hides； and knights' fees all over England would be entirely misleading。 The oxen were an important element in the arrangement； but； of course； not the only one。 The formation of the holding had to conform also to the quality of the soil； the density of the population； etc。 We find in any case the most varying figures。 The knight's fee contained mostly four or five full ploughs or carucates； and still in Lincolnshire sixteen carucates went to the knight's fee。（28*） The carucate was not identical with the hide； but carucate and hide alike had originally meant a unit corresponding to a plough…team。 Four virgates were mostly reckoned to the hide； but sometimes six； eight； seven are taken。（29*） The yardlands （virgates） or full lands； as they are sometimes called； because they were considered as the typical peasant holdings； consist of fifteen； sixteen； eighteen； twenty…four； forty； forty…eight； fifty； sixty…two； eighty acres； although thirty is perhaps the figure which appears more often than any other。（30*） Bovates of ten； twelve； and sixteen acres are to be found in the same locality。（31*） We cannot even seize hold of the acre as the one constant unit among these many variables； the size of the acre itself varied from place to place。 In this way any attempt to establish a normal reckoning of the holdings will not only seem hazardous； but will actually stand in contradiction with patent facts。 Another circumstance seems of yet greater import： even within the boundaries of one and the same community the equality was an agrarian one and did not amount to a strict correspondence in figures。 It was obviously impossible to cut up the land among the holdings in such a way as to make every one contain quite the same number of acres as the rest。 In the Cartulary of Ramsey it is stated； that in one of the manors the virgate contains sometimes forty…eight acres and sometimes less。（32*） The Huntingdon Hundred Rolls mentions a locality where some of the half…virgates have got houses on their plots and some have not。（33*） In the Dorsetshire manor of Newton； belonging to Glastonbury； we find a reduction of the duties of one of the virgates because it is a small one。（34*） A curious instance is supplied by the same Glastonbury survey as to the Wiltshire manor of Christian Malford： one of the virgates was formed out of two former virgates； which were found insufficient to support two separate households。（35*） This last case makes it especially clear that the object was to make the shares on the same pattern in point of quality； and not of mere quantity。 It is only to be regretted that manorial surveys； hundred rolls； and other documents of the same kind take too little heed of such variations； and consider the whole arrangement merely in regard to the interests of the landlord。 For this purpose a rough quantitative statement was sufficient。 They give very sparing indications as to the facts underlying the system of holdings； their aim is to reduce all relations to artificial uniformity in order to make them a fitter basis for the distribution of rents and labour services。 But very little attention is required to notice a very great difference between such figures and reality。 In most of the cases； when the virgate is described in its component parts； we come across irregularities。 Again； each component part is more or less irregular； because instead of the acres and half…acres the real ground presents strips of a very capricious shape。 And so we must come to the conclusion； that the hide； the virgate； the bovate； in short every holding mentioned in the surveys； appears primarily as an artificial； administrative； and fiscal unit which corresponds only in a very rough way to the agrarian reality。 This conclusion coincides with the most important fact； that the reckoning of acres in regard to the plough…team is entirely different in the treatises on husbandry from what it is in the manorial records drawn up for the purpose of an assessment of duties and payments。 Walter of Henley and Fleta reckon 180 acres to the plough in a three…field system； and 160 in a two…field system。 Now these figures are quite exceptional in surveys； whereas 120 acres is most usual without any distinction as to the course of rotation of crops。 The relation between the three…field ploughland of 180 acres and the hide of 120 suggests the inference that the official assessment started from the prevalence of the three…field rotation； and disregarded the fallow。 But the inference is hardly sufficient to explain the facts of the case。 The way towards a solution of the problem is indicated by the terminology of the Ely surveys in the British Museum。 These documents very often mention virgates and full yardlands of twelve acres de ware； on the other hand； the Court Rolls from Edward I's time till Elizabeth's； and a survey of the reign of Edward III； show the virgate to consist of twenty…four acres。（36*） The virgate de ware corresponds usually to one…half of the real virgate； I say usually； because in one case it is reckoned to contain eighteen acres in the place of twenty…four mentioned in the rolls and the later survey。（37*） Such 'acre ware' are to be found； though rarely； in other manors besides those of Ely minster。（38*） The contradiction between the documents may be taken at first glance to originate in a difference between the number of acres under actual tillage and the number of acres comprised in the holding： perha
