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stimuli excite specific neurons in the visual cortex。 
1981 Roger Sperry received the Nobel Prize for his pioneering work on the split…brain phenomenon。 

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READINGS 

Bordens; K。 S。; & Abbott; B。 B。 (1991)。 Research Design and Methods: A Process Approach; 2nd Edition。 Mountain 
View; CA: Mayfield。 Applies the research process to both theoretical and practical problems。 

Graziano; A。 M。; & Raulin; M。 L。 (1989)。 Research Methods: A Process of Inquiry。 New York: Harper Collins 
Publishers。 

Keppel; G。 (1991)。 Design and Analysis: A Researcher’s Handbook; 3rd Edition。 Englewood Cliffs; New Jersey: 
Prentice Hall。 

Stanovich; K。 E。 (1996)。 How to Think Straight about Psychology; 4th Edition。 Glenview; IL: Scott; Foresman。 A 
scholarly yet entertaining account of the necessity of using the scientific method in psychology and of its 
application to everyday life; filled with great examples to use in lectures。 

DISCOVERING PSYCHOLOGY 

PROGRAM 2: UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH 
Overview 

An examination of the scientific method and the ways in which data are collected and applied– in the lab and in the field – 
with an emphasis on sharpening critical thinking regarding research findings。 

Key Issues 

The power of belief; the placebo effect; the double blind procedure; the scientific method and
psychology; and lie detection。


New Interviews 

Christina Maslach takes an in…depth look at applied research。 

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CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY 

FILMS AND VIDEOS 

Flatland (1965)。 Contemporary Films; 12 minutes 

When a “square” from the two…dimensional world of Flatland tries to convince others of the existence of 
a third dimension; he is harshly persecuted。 This animated film illustrates beautifully the scientific 
ideals of objectivity and openness to change。 

33 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 


CHAPTER 3 
The Biological Bases of Behavior 

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 

On pletion of this chapter; students should be able to: 

1。 Understand how biology contributes to the creation of unique individuals 
2。 Appreciate the plex interplay among the brain; mind; behavior; and environment that creates 
the unique experience of being human 
3。 Understand the nature versus nurture and the heredity versus environment controversies 
4。 Explain Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection and its relevance and importance to the field of 
psychology 
5。 Offer examples when given the statement; “Genes do not code for destinies; they code for potential” 
6。 Describe the various methods for exploring the functions of the nervous system 
7。 Identify the structures and functions of the central nervous system; the peripheral nervous system; 
and the autonomic nervous system 
8。 Describe the major structures of the brain; and identify their function 
9。 Explicate the basic functions of the glands in the endocrine system; and explain the role of
neurotransmitters
CHAPTER OUTLINE 

I。 Heredity and Behavior 
A。 End points of Causal Explanation 
1。 Nature versus Nurture 
2。 Heredity versus Environment 
B。 Evolution and Natural Selection 
1。 Natural Selection: Fundamental assumption of psychology 
a) Charles Darwin published The Origin of the Species in 1859 
b) Survival of the fittest: Only those organisms most adapted to the 
environment survive 

2。 Genotypes: A specific genetic structure 
3。 Phenotypes: Outward appearance and repertory of behaviors 
4。 Genotype and the environment interact to yield a particular phenotype 
C。 Human Evolution 
1。 Human evolution favored two adaptations: Bipedalism and Encephalization 
34 


CHAPTER3: THE BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR 

a) Bipedalism: the ability to walk upright 
b) Encephalization: increases in brain size 

2。 Language: A third critical evolutionary milestone for humans 
a) Language is the basis of cultural evolution–the ability of cultures to 
respond adaptively; through learning; to environmental change。 Works 
much more quickly than genetic evolution。 

D。 Variation in the Human Genotype 
1。 Basic Genetics 
a) Genes: Organized packets of DNA that contain the instructions for the 
production of proteins 

b) Genes are found on rod like structures known as chromosomes。 Humans 
contain 46 chromosomes; 23 from the mother and 23 from the father。 

c) Estimates of the number of genes in the human genome range from 30;000 
to 150;000 

d) The X and Y sex chromosomes determine sex。 One X es from the 
mother; and either an X or a Y es from the father。 XX = female。 XY = 
male。 

2。 Genes and Behavior: the interaction of psychology and genetics 
a) Biology (genes) is (are) not destiny 
b) Genes only determine the range of effects that the environment can have in 
shaping phenotype and behavior 
c) The person that you bee is jointly determined by genes and the 
environment; by nature and nurture 

3。 Sociobiology focuses on evolutionary explanations for social behavior and social 
systems of humans and other animal species 
II。Biology and Behavior 
A。 Early Explanations of Behavior 
1。 Rene Descartes argued that human physiology could be studied empirically; that 
humans are just an animal machine; and that human action is a mechanical 
response to the environment 
2。 Sir Charles Sherrington provided evidence for Descartes’ ideas and suggested that 
the human nervous system involves both excitatory and inhibitory processes 
3。 Santiago Ramón y Cajal detected the physical gaps between adjacent neurons 
4。 Donald Hebb proposed that the brain is not merely a mass of tissue but a highly 
integrated series of structures; or cell assemblies; that perform specific functions 
5。 Neuroscience is one of the most rapidly growing areas of research today 
B。 Eavesdropping on the Brain 
1。 Broca’s Area: The region of the brain that translates thoughts into speech 
35 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

2。 Producing brain lesions 
a) Not done on humans for obvious ethical reasons 

b) Helpful in treating some neurological disorders such as epilepsy 

3。 Electrical stimulation 
a) Walter Hess found that sleep; sexual arousal; anxiety; and terror could be 
turned on and off by electrically stimulating specific areas of the brain 

4。 Recording and imaging brain activity 
a) Electroencephalogram (EEG) records large; integrated patterns of brain 
electrical activity 

b) Positron…Emission Tomography (PET) scans construct a dynamic portrait 
of the brain by detecting how radioactive (but safe) substances are 
processed in the brain during different cognitive and behavioral activities 

c) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) uses pulses of energy to cause atoms 
to align with a magnetic field。 Special radio receivers then monitor the rate 
at which atoms decay from alignment once the energy pulse is plete。 
puters analyze this information to create dynamic models of brain 
activity。 

C。 The Nervous System 
1。 prised of two major divisions 
a) The central nervous system (CNS); prised of all the neurons in the 
brain and spinal cord 

b) The peripheral nervous system (PNS); prised of all the neurons 
forming the nerve fibers that connect the CNS to the body 

2。 The Central Nervous System (CNS) 
a) Integrates and coordinates all bodily functions; processes all ining 
neural messages; and sends mands to different parts of the body 

b) Relies on PNS for information from sensory receptors 

3。 The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) 
a) Provides the CNS with sensory information and relays mands from 
the brain to the body’s organs and muscles 

b) posed of two subdivisions 

(1) The Somatic Nervous System (SNS); which regulates the actions 
of skeletal muscles 
(2) The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS); which sustains basic life 
processes; further divided into two subdivisions: 
(i) The Sympathetic Division governs response to 
emergencies 
(ii) The Parasympathetic Division governs routine operation 
of internal bodily functions 
D。 Brain Structures and Their Functions 
1。 The brain is the most important ponent of the CNS and is posed of three 
layers: the brain stem; the limbic system; and the cerebrum 
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CHAPTER3: THE BIOLOGICAL B

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