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produce¡¡different¡¡types¡¡of¡¡nerve¡¡activity¡£¡¡Rather¡¡they¡¡produce¡¡the¡¡
same¡¡type¡¡of¡¡nerve¡¡activity£»¡¡but¡¡in¡¡different¡¡regions¡¡of¡¡the¡¡brain¡£¡¡

c£©¡¡All¡¡sensory¡¡systems¡¡share¡¡the¡¡same¡¡basic¡¡flow¡¡of¡¡information¡£¡¡
Environmental¡¡events¡¡are¡¡detected¡¡by¡¡specialized¡¡sensory¡¡receptor¡¡
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A¡£¡¡The¡¡Importance¡¡of¡¡Vision¡¡
1¡£¡¡The¡¡most¡¡plex£»¡¡highly¡¡developed£»¡¡and¡¡important¡¡sense¡¡for¡¡humans¡¡
and¡¡most¡¡other¡¡mobile¡¡creatures¡¡
2¡£¡¡Provides¡¡a¡¡tremendous¡¡evolutionary¡¡advantage¡¡
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cones¡¡that¡¡convert¡¡light¡¡energy¡¡into¡¡nerve¡¡energy¡¡
a£©¡¡Rods¡¡function¡¡best¡¡in¡¡low¡¡light¡¡

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2¡£¡¡Dark¡¡adaptation¡¡is¡¡the¡¡gradual¡¡improvement¡¡of¡¡the¡¡eyes¡¯¡¡sensitivity¡¡after¡¡
a¡¡shift¡¡in¡¡illumination¡¡from¡¡light¡¡to¡¡near¡¡darkness¡¡
3¡£¡¡The¡¡area¡¡of¡¡sharpest¡¡vision¡¡is¡¡called¡¡the¡¡fovea£»¡¡a¡¡small¡¡area¡¡near¡¡the¡¡
center¡¡of¡¡the¡¡retina¡¡that¡¡contains¡¡only¡¡densely¡¡packed¡¡cones¡¡
4¡£¡¡Bipolar¡¡cells¡¡are¡¡nerve¡¡cells¡¡that¡¡bine¡¡information¡¡from¡¡many¡¡receptor¡¡
cells¡¡and¡¡send¡¡the¡¡results¡¡to¡¡ganglion¡¡cells¡¡
5¡£¡¡Ganglion¡¡cells¡¡then¡¡integrate¡¡the¡¡information¡¡from¡¡bipolar¡¡cells¡¡into¡¡a¡¡
single¡¡firing¡¡rate¡¡
6¡£¡¡The¡¡axons¡¡of¡¡the¡¡ganglion¡¡cells¡¡prise¡¡the¡¡optic¡¡nerve£»¡¡which¡¡carries¡¡
visual¡¡information¡¡to¡¡the¡¡brain¡¡
7¡£¡¡Horizontal¡¡and¡¡Amacrine¡¡cells¡¡do¡¡not¡¡send¡¡information¡¡to¡¡the¡¡brain¡¡but¡¡
rather¡¡integrate¡¡information¡¡across¡¡the¡¡retina¡¡
a£©¡¡Horizontal¡¡cells¡¡connect¡¡receptors¡¡to¡¡each¡¡other¡¡

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cells¡¡to¡¡ganglion¡¡cells¡¡

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retina¡£¡¡It¡¡contains¡¡no¡¡receptor¡¡cells¡£¡¡Blindness¡¡is¡¡not¡¡experienced¡¡at¡¡this¡¡
spot¡¡because¡¡the¡¡blind¡¡spots¡¡for¡¡each¡¡eye¡¡are¡¡different¡¡areas¡¡of¡¡the¡¡visual¡¡
field¡¡and¡¡because¡¡the¡¡brain¡¡automatically¡¡fills¡¡in¡¡the¡¡blind¡¡spot¡£¡¡
E¡£¡¡Pathways¡¡to¡¡the¡¡Brain¡¡
1¡£¡¡After¡¡processing¡¡by¡¡other¡¡brain¡¡regions£»¡¡the¡¡ultimate¡¡destination¡¡of¡¡much¡¡
visual¡¡information¡¡is¡¡the¡¡part¡¡of¡¡the¡¡occipital¡¡lobe¡¡known¡¡as¡¡the¡¡visual¡¡
cortex¡¡
2¡£¡¡The¡¡axons¡¡of¡¡the¡¡millions¡¡of¡¡ganglion¡¡cells¡¡that¡¡form¡¡the¡¡optic¡¡nerve¡¡
e¡¡together¡¡at¡¡the¡¡optic¡¡chiasma£»¡¡where¡¡they¡¡are¡¡divided¡¡into¡¡two¡¡
bundles¡¡called¡¡optic¡¡tracts¡¡

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originated¡£¡¡The¡¡other¡¡half¡¡cross¡¡over¡¡to¡¡the¡¡other¡¡side¡¡of¡¡the¡¡brain¡£¡¡
4¡£¡¡Much¡¡visual¡¡information¡¡then¡¡flows¡¡to¡¡the¡¡primary¡¡visual¡¡cortex£»¡¡where¡¡
roughly¡¡30¡¡anatomical¡¡subdivisions¡¡of¡¡the¡¡primary¡¡visual¡¡cortex¡¡process¡¡
information¡¡concerning¡¡form£»¡¡color£»¡¡position£»¡¡and¡¡depth¡¡
F¡£¡¡Seeing¡¡Color¡¡
1¡£¡¡Visible¡¡light¡¡£¨wave¡¡length¡¡of¡¡400¨C700¡¡manometers£©¡¡is¡¡just¡¡a¡¡small¡¡portion¡¡
of¡¡the¡¡electromagnetic¡¡spectrum£»¡¡which¡¡includes¡¡X¡¡rays£»¡¡microwaves£»¡¡and¡¡
radio¡¡waves¡¡

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2¡£¡¡Wavelength¡¡refers¡¡to¡¡the¡¡distance¡¡between¡¡crests¡¡of¡¡two¡¡consecutive¡¡
waves¡£¡¡Wavelength¡¡determines¡¡the¡¡color¡¡perceived¡£¡¡
3¡£¡¡All¡¡experiences¡¡of¡¡color¡¡can¡¡be¡¡described¡¡in¡¡terms¡¡of¡¡hue£»¡¡saturation£»¡¡and¡¡
brightness¡¡
a£©¡¡Hue¡¡captures¡¡the¡¡qualitative¡¡experience¡¡of¡¡color¡¡of¡¡the¡¡light¡¡
stimulus¡¡

b£©¡¡Saturation¡¡captures¡¡the¡¡purity¡¡and¡¡vividness¡¡of¡¡color¡¡sensations¡¡

c£©¡¡Brightness¡¡captures¡¡the¡¡intensity¡¡of¡¡the¡¡light¡¡

4¡£¡¡Humans¡¡can¡¡discriminate¡¡about¡¡7¡¡million¡¡different¡¡colors¡¡
5¡£¡¡The¡¡bination¡¡of¡¡all¡¡wavelengths¡¡of¡¡light¡¡yields¡¡white¡¡light¡¡
6¡£¡¡Wavelengths¡¡of¡¡light¡¡that¡¡appear¡¡directly¡¡across¡¡from¡¡each¡¡other¡¡on¡¡the¡¡
color¡¡wheel¡¡are¡¡called¡¡plementary£»¡¡and¡¡create¡¡the¡¡sensation¡¡of¡¡white¡¡
light¡¡when¡¡mixed¡¡
7¡£¡¡Color¡¡Blindness¡¡is¡¡the¡¡inability¡¡to¡¡distinguish¡¡colors¡£¡¡More¡¡males¡¡than¡¡
females¡¡are¡¡color¡¡blind£»¡¡and¡¡most¡¡color¡¡blindness¡¡involves¡¡the¡¡inability¡¡
to¡¡distinguish¡¡red¡¡from¡¡green¡£¡¡
8¡£¡¡There¡¡are¡¡two¡¡primary¡¡theories¡¡of¡¡color¡¡vision£º¡¡The¡¡Young¡­Helmholtz¡¡
Trichromatic¡¡Theory¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Opponent¡­Process¡¡Theory¡¡
a£©¡¡The¡¡Trichromatic¡¡Theory¡¡of¡¡color¡¡perception£»¡¡proposed¡¡by¡¡Sir¡¡
Thomas¡¡Young¡¡and¡¡Hermann¡¡von¡¡Helmholtz£»¡¡suggests¡¡that¡¡all¡¡
colors¡¡perceived¡¡are¡¡produced¡¡by¡¡just¡¡three¡¡types¡¡of¡¡color¡¡receptors¡¡
in¡¡the¡¡eye£º¡¡red£»¡¡green£»¡¡and¡¡blue¡£¡¡All¡¡other¡¡colors¡¡are¡¡binations¡¡
of¡¡these¡£¡¡This¡¡theory¡¡adequately¡¡explains¡¡color¡¡blindness¡¡and¡¡
people¡¯s¡¡color¡¡sensations£»¡¡but¡¡did¡¡not¡¡explain¡¡afterimages¡¡and¡¡
certain¡¡types¡¡of¡¡color¡¡blindness¡£¡¡

b£©¡¡The¡¡Opponent¡­Process¡¡Theory¡¡of¡¡color¡¡perception£»¡¡proposed¡¡by¡¡
Ewald¡¡Hering£»¡¡suggests¡¡that¡¡color¡¡results¡¡from¡¡three¡¡systems£»¡¡each¡¡
of¡¡which¡¡includes¡¡two¡¡opponent¡¡elements£º¡¡red¡¡versus¡¡green£»¡¡blue¡¡
versus¡¡yellow£»¡¡or¡¡black¡¡versus¡¡white¡£¡¡Hering¡¡argued¡¡that¡¡
afterimages¡¡were¡¡produced¡¡when¡¡one¡¡element¡¡of¡¡a¡¡system¡¡became¡¡
fatigued£»¡¡due¡¡to¡¡over¡¡stimulation£»¡¡and¡¡thus¡¡led¡¡to¡¡the¡¡over¡¡
contribution¡¡of¡¡its¡¡opponent¡¡element¡£¡¡This¡¡theory¡¡also¡¡better¡¡
explained¡¡why¡¡color¡¡blindness¡¡is¡¡usually¡¡found¡¡in¡¡pairs¡£¡¡

9¡£¡¡After¡¡debating¡¡the¡¡relative¡¡merits¡¡of¡¡these¡¡two¡¡theories£»¡¡scientists¡¡came¡¡to¡¡
agree¡¡that¡¡they¡¡are¡¡not¡¡in¡¡conflict£»¡¡but¡¡rather¡¡describe¡¡different¡¡stages¡¡in¡¡
color¡¡perception¡¡
10¡£¡¡A¡¡modern¡¡version¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Opponent¡­Process¡¡Theory£»¡¡proposed¡¡by¡¡
Hurvich¡¡and¡¡Jameson£»¡¡suggests¡¡that¡¡the¡¡two¡¡members¡¡of¡¡each¡¡color¡¡pair¡¡
work¡¡in¡¡opposition¡¡by¡¡means¡¡of¡¡neural¡¡inhibition¡£¡¡Some¡¡ganglion¡¡cells¡¡
are¡¡excited¡¡by¡¡light¡¡that¡¡appears¡¡red¡¡and¡¡inhibited¡¡by¡¡light¡¡that¡¡appears¡¡
green¡£¡¡Other¡¡cells¡¡are¡¡excited¡¡by¡¡green¡¡light¡¡and¡¡inhibited¡¡by¡¡red¡¡light¡£¡¡
G¡£¡¡plex¡¡Visual¡¡Analysis¡¡
1¡£¡¡David¡¡Hubel¡¡and¡¡Torsten¡¡Wiesel¡¡won¡¡a¡¡Nobel¡¡Prize¡¡for¡¡their¡¡work¡¡on¡¡
receptive¡¡fields¡¡in¡¡the¡¡visual¡¡cortex¡¡in¡¡1981¡¡
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CHAPTER¡¡4£º¡¡SENSATION¡¡

2¡£¡¡Hubel¡¡and¡¡Wiesel¡¡found¡¡there¡¡are¡¡several¡¡types¡¡of¡¡receptive¡¡cells¡¡
a£©¡¡Simple¡¡cells¡¡respond¡¡most¡¡strongly¡¡to¡¡bars¡¡of¡¡light¡¡in¡¡their¡¡
¡°favorite¡±¡¡orientation¡¡

b£©¡¡plex¡¡cells¡¡respond¡¡most¡¡strongly¡¡to¡¡moving¡¡bars¡¡of¡¡light¡¡in¡¡
their¡¡¡°favorite¡±¡¡orientation¡¡

c£©¡¡Hyperplex¡¡cells¡¡respond¡¡most¡¡strongly¡¡to¡¡moving¡¡bars¡¡of¡¡light¡¡of¡¡
a¡¡particular¡¡length¡¡or¡¡angle¡¡

III¡£¡¡Hearing¡¡
A¡£¡¡Hearing¡¡is¡¡the¡¡Principle¡¡Sensory¡¡Modality¡¡for¡¡Human¡¡munication¡¡
B¡£¡¡The¡¡Physics¡¡of¡¡Sound¡¡
1¡£¡¡Sound¡¡travels¡¡as¡¡a¡¡vibrational¡¡sine¡¡wave¡¡through¡¡a¡¡medium£»¡¡usually¡¡air£»¡¡
at¡¡a¡¡rate¡¡of¡¡about¡¡1100¡¡feet¡¡per¡¡second¡¡
2¡£¡¡Sine¡¡waves¡¡have¡¡two¡¡basic¡¡properties£º¡¡frequency¡¡and¡¡amplitude¡¡
a£©¡¡Frequency¡¡measures¡¡the¡¡number¡¡of¡¡cycles¡¡the¡¡wave¡¡pletes¡¡in¡¡a¡¡
given¡¡amount¡¡of¡¡time¡¡and¡¡is¡¡usually¡¡measured¡¡in¡¡Hertz¡¡£¨Hz£©£»¡¡or¡¡
cycles¡¡per¡¡second¡¡

b£©¡¡Amplitude¡¡measures¡¡strength¡¡of¡¡the¡¡wave¡¡in¡¡peak¡¡to¡¡valley¡¡height¡¡

C¡£¡¡Psychological¡¡Dimensions¡¡of¡¡Sound¡¡
1¡£¡¡Pitch¡¡is¡¡the¡¡highness¡¡or¡¡lowness¡¡of¡¡a¡¡sound¡¡as¡¡determined¡¡by¡¡a¡¡wave¡¯s¡¡
frequency¡£¡¡High¡¡frequencies¡¡produce¡¡high¡¡pitch£»¡¡while¡¡low¡¡frequencies¡¡
produce¡¡low¡¡pitch¡£¡¡
2¡£¡¡Loudness¡¡is¡¡the¡¡physical¡¡intensity¡¡of¡¡a¡¡sound¡¡as¡¡determined¡¡by¡¡a¡¡wave¡¯s¡¡
amplitude¡£¡¡Small¡¡amplitude¡¡waves¡¡are¡¡experienced¡¡as¡¡quiet¡¡sound¡¡and¡¡
large¡¡amplitude¡¡waves¡¡are¡¡experienced¡¡as¡¡loud¡¡sound¡£¡¡
3¡£¡¡Timbre¡¡reflects¡¡the¡¡plex¡¡ponents¡¡of¡¡a¡¡sound¡¡wave¡£¡¡A¡¡pure¡¡tone¡¡
has¡¡only¡¡one¡¡frequency¡¡and¡¡one¡¡amplitude¡£¡¡Most¡¡sounds£»¡¡however£»¡¡are¡¡
not¡¡pure¡¡tones£»¡¡which¡¡is¡¡reflected¡¡in¡¡timbre¡£¡¡
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