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心理学与生活-第42章

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over time 

2。 Cultural constructions of reality are ways of thinking about the world 
that are shared by most members of a particular group of people 
3。 Consensual validation is the mutual affirmation of conscious 
constructions of reality 
D。 Studying the Functions of Consciousness 
1。 Researchers use the SLIP (Spoonerisms of Laboratory Induced 
Predisposition) technique to study the way in which unconscious 
forces affect speech errors 

III。 Sleep and Dreams 
A。 Circadian rhythms–the human time cycle–influence arousal levels; metabolism; heart 
rate; body temperature; hormonal activity; and other bodily processes。 Circadian rhythms 
are close to 24 hours。 
1。 Mismatches between circadian rhythms and environmental clocks can 
affect how individuals feel; as it does in jet lag 
2。 About a third of each circadian rhythm is devoted to sleep 
B。 The Sleep Cycle 
1。 The electroencephalogram (EEG); which records electrical brain wave 
activity; provided a methodological breakthrough in sleep research。 
2。 As an individual prepares for bed; brain wave activity averages about 
14 cycles per second (cps) 
3。 Stage 1 sleep is characterized by brain waves of about 3 to 7 cps 
4。 Stage 2 sleep is characterized by sleep spindles; minute bursts of 
electrical activity of 12 to 16 cps 
5。 Stage 3 sleep is characterized by deep relaxation and brain wave 
activity of about 1 to 2 cps 
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CHAPTER 6: MIND; CONSCIOUSNESS; AND ALTERED STATES 

6。 Stage 4 sleep is characterized by even deeper relaxation and very slow 
brain wave activity 
7。 REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep is characterized by a return to brain 
wave activity similar to that found in stages 1 and 2; by the rapid eye 
movements for which this stage is named; and by the presence of 
dreams 
8。 The first four stages of sleep require about 90 minutes。 REM sleep 
about 10 minutes。 During the course of a night; this 100…minute cycle 
is repeated four to six times。 
C。 Why Sleep? 
1。 The two most general functions of NREM sleep are conservation and 
restoration 
a) Sleep helps conserve energy because it often occurs when 
foraging for food; searching for mates; or moving about is 
unnecessary or dangerous 

b) Sleep serves a restorative function because neurotransmitters 
and neuromodulators may be synthesized and their balance 
restored during sleep 

2。 The function of REM sleep appears to be related to the maintenance of 
mood and emotion; storing memories; and fitting recent experiences 
into existing memories。 REM sleep may also restore the balance of the 
brain after NREM sleep。 
D。 Sleep Disorders 
1。 Insomnia is the inability to get a satisfactory amount or quality of sleep 
and is characterized by an inability to fall asleep; frequent arousal; or 
early morning awakening 
2。 Narcolepsy is a sleep disorder characterized by a periodic pulsion 
to sleep during the daytime 
3。 Sleep Apnea is an upper respiratory sleep disorder in which the person 
stops breathing while asleep; which causes the sufferer to awake 
immediately and begin breathing again 
4。 Excessive Daytime Sleepiness is the major plaint of individuals 
evaluated at sleep disorder centers。 About one…third of adults report 
excessive sleepiness during the daytime。 
E。 Dreams: Theater of the Mind 
1。 Most dreams take place during REM sleep。 Dreams that take place 
during NREM sleep tend to be full of specific thoughts but devoid of 
dramatic content or vivid sensory imagery。 
2。 NREM dreams are recalled less often than REM dreams; but NREM 
dreaming is enhanced during the very late morning hours。 
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

3。 Most cultures instill the belief that dreams have meaning; but they do 
so in diverse ways 
a) The most prominent Western theory of dreams was proposed 
by Sigmund Freud 

b) Freud believed dreams to be “the royal road to the 
unconscious” 

c) In The Interpretation of Dreams; Freud made dreams a 
cornerstone of psychoanalysis。 Dreams; to Freud; were “wish 
fulfillment” of powerful; unconscious desires that were 
disguised in dream form。 

d) The latent content of a dream referred to the hidden wish or 
meaning of the dream 

e) This latent content is transformed into a disguised form; or 
manifest content; through the process of dream work 

f) Dream work takes forbidden wishes and transforms them into 
often bizarre but acceptable forms that are experienced as 
dreams 

g) The interpretation of dreams requires working backward from 
the manifest content to the latent content; to revealing the 
unconscious wishes expressed in the dream 

h) Freud’s theory of dream interpretation relates dream symbols; 
which may have both universal and personal meanings; to 
his explicit theory of psychology 

4。 Non…Western Approaches to Dream Interpretation 
a) In many non…Western cultures; dream interpretation is part of 
the fabric of the culture 

b) In the Mayan culture; shamans function as dream interpreters 
and play a central role in Mayan interpersonal relations and 
in tying the Mayan culture to their ancestral roots 

c) In other cultures; such as the people of the Ingessana Hills 
(bordering Ethiopia and Sudan) and the Kapolo Indians of 
Brazil; dreams represent visions of the future 

F。 Physiological Theories of Dream Content 
1。 Represent the greatest challenge to the Freudian Theory of Dreams 
2。 The Activation–Synthesis Model of Dreams suggests that dreams are 
the brain’s attempt to make sense of essentially random neural firings 
that occur during sleep。 In an inexorable quest for meaning; the brain 
weaves random neural activity into a strange but prehensible 
narrative based on memories; beliefs; values; goals; and expectations。 
G。 Nightmares 
1。 Nightmares are dreams that make the dreamer feel helpless or out of 
control 
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CHAPTER 6: MIND; CONSCIOUSNESS; AND ALTERED STATES 

2。 Nightmares are often triggered by stress; especially fear of harm and 
desertion; and usually only occur a few times each year 
3。 Traumatic events may make individuals more likely to have 
nightmares that force them to relive some aspect of the traumatic event 
IV。 Alerted States of Consciousness 
A。 Lucid Dreaming 
1。 Lucid dreaming involves conscious awareness while an individual is 
dreaming; that they are dreaming 
2。 Research suggests that the ability to lucid dream can be taught 
3。 Some researchers; such as LaBerge; argue that lucid dreaming 
enhances self…esteem and generates positive experiences by giving 
individuals control over the often uncontrollable events of dreams and 
nightmares 
4。 Others argue that lucid dreaming interferes with and distorts the 
natural process of dreaming 
B。 Hypnosis 
1。 Hypnosis is an alternative state of awareness characterized by the 
special ability some people have of responding to suggestion with 
changes in perception; memory; motivation; and sense of self…control 
a) Some researchers believe that hypnotized individuals enter a 
trance; although research suggests that this is not the case 

b) Some believe that hypnosis is a kind of placebo response; 
although some research suggests an added benefit beyond 
that derived from a placebo 

2。 Hypnotic Induction and Hypnotizability 
a) A hypnotic induction is a preliminary set of activities that 
minimizes external distractions and encourages the 
participant to enter a hypnotic state 

b) Hypnotizability refers to the degree to which an individual is 
responsive to standardized suggestions to experience 
hypnotic reactions 

c) Hypnotizability varies widely from person to person; is 
relatively stable over time; and may have some genetic 
determinants; although it is not correlated with any 
personality trait 

3。 Effects of Hypnosis 
a) One undisputed value of hypnosis is pain reduction (hypnotic 
analgesia)。 Hypnotic analgesia has proved especially 
valuable to surgery patients that are allergic to anesthesia; to 
mothers in natural childbirth; and to cancer patients learning 
to endure chronic pain associated with their disease。 

b) Self…hypnosis is the best approach to controlling pain because 

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PSYCHOLOGY AND 

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