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and¡¡theory¡£¡¡Selected¡¡for¡¡preview¡¡at¡¡the¡¡APA¡¡convention¡¡in¡¡1989¡£¡¡

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CHAPTER¡¡9¡¡
Cognitive¡¡Processes¡¡

LEARNING¡¡OBJECTIVES¡¡

On¡¡pletion¡¡of¡¡this¡¡chapter£»¡¡students¡¡should¡¡be¡¡able¡¡to£º¡¡

1¡£¡¡Describe¡¡the¡¡differences¡¡and¡¡similarities¡¡between¡¡automatic¡¡and¡¡controlled¡¡processes¡¡
2¡£¡¡Define¡¡Grice¡¯s¡¡maxims¡¡for¡¡language¡¡production¡¡
3¡£¡¡Describe¡¡the¡¡various¡¡forms¡¡of¡¡ambiguity¡¡in¡¡language¡¡prehension¡¡
4¡£¡¡Explain¡¡the¡¡significance¡¡of¡¡inference¡¡in¡¡the¡¡cognitive¡¡processing¡¡of¡¡language¡¡
5¡£¡¡Demonstrate¡¡understanding¡¡of¡¡the¡¡significance¡¡of¡¡Paivio¡¯s¡¡dual¡­coding¡¡theory¡¡
6¡£¡¡Define¡¡¡°problem¡¡space£»¡±¡¡and¡¡its¡¡relationship¡¡to¡¡problemsolving¡¡
7¡£¡¡Suggests¡¡techniques¡¡to¡¡improve¡¡problem¡¡solving¡¡skills¡¡
8¡£¡¡Elaborate¡¡on¡¡the¡¡difference¡¡between¡¡deductive¡¡reasoning¡¡and¡¡inductive¡¡reasoning¡¡
9¡£¡¡Understand¡¡the¡¡heuristics¡¡and¡¡biases¡¡involved¡¡in¡¡judgments¡¡and¡¡decision¡¡making¡¡
10¡£¡¡Articulate¡¡the¡¡significance¡¡of¡¡framing¡¡and¡¡reference¡¡points¡¡relative¡¡to¡¡decision¡¡making¡¡
CHAPTER¡¡OUTLINE¡¡

I¡£¡¡Studying¡¡Cognition¡¡
A¡£¡¡Definitions¡¡
1¡£¡¡Cognition¡¡is¡¡a¡¡general¡¡term¡¡for¡¡all¡¡forms¡¡of¡¡knowing¡¡
2¡£¡¡The¡¡contents¡¡of¡¡cognition¡¡are¡¡what¡¡you¡¡know¡ªconcepts£»¡¡facts£»¡¡
propositions£»¡¡rules£»¡¡and¡¡memories¡¡
3¡£¡¡Cognitive¡¡processes¡¡are¡¡how¡¡you¡¡manipulate¡¡these¡¡mental¡¡contents¡¡
4¡£¡¡Cognitive¡¡psychology¡¡is¡¡the¡¡study¡¡of¡¡cognition¡¡
B¡£¡¡Discovering¡¡the¡¡Processes¡¡of¡¡Mind¡¡
1¡£¡¡Donders¡¡devised¡¡the¡¡subtraction¡¡method£»¡¡one¡¡of¡¡the¡¡fundamental¡¡
methodologies¡¡for¡¡studying¡¡mental¡¡processes¡¡
2¡£¡¡He¡¡proposed¡¡that¡¡extra¡¡mental¡¡steps¡¡will¡¡often¡¡result¡¡in¡¡more¡¡time¡¡
required¡¡to¡¡perform¡¡a¡¡given¡¡task¡¡
3¡£¡¡Response¡¡selection¡¡requires¡¡more¡¡time¡¡than¡¡stimulus¡¡categorization£»¡¡
because¡¡response¡¡selection¡¡includes¡¡stimulus¡¡categorization¡¡
4¡£¡¡Reaction¡¡time¡¡has¡¡replaced¡¡the¡¡subtraction¡¡method¡¡as¡¡a¡¡method¡¡of¡¡
testing¡¡specific¡¡accounts¡¡of¡¡how¡¡a¡¡given¡¡cognitive¡¡process¡¡is¡¡carried¡¡
out¡¡
C¡£¡¡Mental¡¡Processes¡¡and¡¡Mental¡¡Resources¡¡
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CHAPTER¡¡9£º¡¡COGNITIVE¡¡PROCESSES¡¡

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individual¡¡element¡¡in¡¡an¡¡array£»¡¡one¡¡after¡¡another¡¡

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elements¡¡in¡¡an¡¡array¡¡

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3¡£¡¡A¡¡key¡¡assumption¡¡is¡¡that¡¡limited¡¡processing¡¡resources¡¡must¡¡be¡¡spread¡¡
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4¡£¡¡Attentional¡¡processes¡¡are¡¡responsible¡¡for¡¡distributing¡¡these¡¡resources¡¡
5¡£¡¡Some¡¡processes¡¡place¡¡higher¡¡demands¡¡on¡¡mental¡¡resources¡¡dm¡¡do¡¡
others¡¡
6¡£¡¡Controlled¡¡processes¡¡require¡¡attention¡¡and¡¡thus¡¡greater¡¡allocation¡¡of¡¡
mental¡¡resources¡¡
7¡£¡¡Automatic¡¡processes¡¡generally¡¡do¡¡not¡¡require¡¡attention¡¡and¡¡can¡¡often¡¡be¡¡
performed¡¡along¡¡with¡¡other¡¡tasks¡¡without¡¡interference¡¡
D¡£¡¡The¡¡goal¡¡of¡¡much¡¡cognitive¡¡psychological¡¡research¡¡is¡¡to¡¡invent¡¡experiments¡¡that¡¡confirm¡¡
each¡¡of¡¡the¡¡ponents¡¡of¡¡models¡¡that¡¡bine¡¡serial¡¡and¡¡parallel£»¡¡and¡¡controlled¡¡and¡¡
automatic¡¡processes¡¡
II¡£Language¡¡Use¡¡
A¡£¡¡Language¡¡Production¡¡
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processes¡¡they¡¡go¡¡through¡¡to¡¡produce¡¡the¡¡message¡¡
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b£©¡¡Refers¡¡to¡¡language¡¡producers¡¡as¡¡speakers¡¡and¡¡to¡¡language¡¡
understanders¡¡as¡¡listeners¡¡

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have¡¡in¡¡mind¡¡the¡¡audience¡¡to¡¡which¡¡that¡¡utterance¡¡is¡¡directed¡¡and¡¡
what¡¡knowledge¡¡you¡¡share¡¡with¡¡members¡¡of¡¡that¡¡audience¡¡
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utterances¡¡appropriate¡¡to¡¡the¡¡setting¡¡and¡¡meaning¡¡of¡¡the¡¡
ongoing¡¡conversation¡£¡¡There¡¡are¡¡four¡¡maxims¡¡that¡¡cooperative¡¡
speakers¡¡should¡¡live¡¡by£º¡¡

£¨i£©¡¡Quantity£º¡¡Make¡¡your¡¡contribution¡¡as¡¡informative¡¡as¡¡is¡¡
required£»¡¡but¡¡do¡¡not¡¡make¡¡it¡¡more¡¡informative¡¡than¡¡
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£¨ii£©¡¡Quality£º¡¡Try¡¡to¡¡make¡¡your¡¡contribution¡¡one¡¡that¡¡is¡¡true¡¡
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expression£»¡¡avoid¡¡ambiguity£»¡¡be¡¡brief£»¡¡be¡¡orderly¡¡
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are¡¡based¡¡on¡¡three¡¡sources¡¡of¡¡evidence£º¡¡

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£¨i£©¡¡munity¡¡membership£º¡¡Assumptions¡¡made¡¡by¡¡
language¡¡producers¡¡about¡¡what¡¡is¡¡likely¡¡to¡¡be¡¡
mutually¡¡known£»¡¡based¡¡on¡¡shared¡¡membership¡¡in¡¡
munities¡¡of¡¡various¡¡sizes¡¡
£¨ii£©¡¡Linguistic¡¡copresence£º¡¡Assumptions¡¡made¡¡by¡¡language¡¡
producers¡¡that¡¡information¡¡contained¡¡in¡¡earlier¡¡parts¡¡
of¡¡a¡¡conversation£»¡¡or¡¡in¡¡past¡¡conversations£»¡¡are¡¡
mon¡¡ground¡¡
£¨iii£©¡¡Physical¡¡copresence£º¡¡Exists¡¡when¡¡a¡¡speaker¡¡and¡¡a¡¡
listener¡¡are¡¡directly¡¡in¡¡the¡¡physical¡¡presence¡¡of¡¡objects¡¡
or¡¡situations¡¡
3¡£¡¡Speech¡¡Execution¡¡and¡¡Speech¡¡Errors¡¡
a£©¡¡Speech¡¡errors¡¡give¡¡researchers¡¡insight¡¡into¡¡the¡¡planning¡¡
needed¡¡to¡¡produce¡¡utterances¡¡

£¨i£©¡¡Speakers¡¡must¡¡choose¡¡content¡¡words¡¡that¡¡best¡¡fit¡¡their¡¡
ideas¡¡
£¨ii£©¡¡Speakers¡¡must¡¡place¡¡the¡¡chosen¡¡words¡¡in¡¡the¡¡right¡¡
place¡¡in¡¡the¡¡utterance¡¡
£¨iii£©¡¡Speakers¡¡must¡¡fill¡¡in¡¡the¡¡sounds¡¡that¡¡make¡¡up¡¡the¡¡
words¡¡they¡¡wish¡¡to¡¡utter¡¡
b£©¡¡Spoonerisms¨Cone¡¡type¡¡of¡¡speech¡¡error¨Cconsist¡¡of¡¡an¡¡exchange¡¡
of¡¡the¡¡initial¡¡sounds¡¡of¡¡two¡¡or¡¡more¡¡words¡¡in¡¡a¡¡phrase¡¡or¡¡
sentence¡£¡¡Spoonerisms¡¡are¡¡more¡¡likely¡¡to¡¡occur¡¡when¡¡the¡¡error¡¡
will¡¡still¡¡result¡¡in¡¡real¡¡words¡¡

c£©¡¡Spontaneous¡¡and¡¡laboratory¡¡induced¡¡errors¡¡provide¡¡evidence¡¡
about¡¡processes¡¡and¡¡representations¡¡in¡¡speech¡¡execution¡¡

B¡£¡¡Language¡¡Understanding¡¡
1¡£¡¡Resolving¡¡ambiguity¡¡involves¡¡detangling¡¡two¡¡types¡¡of¡¡ambiguity¡¡
a£©¡¡Structural¡¡ambiguity¡¡involves¡¡determining¡¡which¡¡of¡¡two¡¡£¨or¡¡
more£©¡¡meanings¡¡the¡¡structure¡¡of¡¡a¡¡sentence¡¡implies£»¡¡and¡¡is¡¡
dependent¡¡largely¡¡on¡¡prior¡¡context¡¡for¡¡resolution¡¡

b£©¡¡Lexical¡¡ambiguity¡¡involves¡¡determining¡¡which¡¡of¡¡the¡¡various¡¡
meanings¡¡of¡¡a¡¡word¡¡may¡¡be¡¡appropriate¡¡in¡¡this¡¡context¡£¡¡To¡¡
eliminate¡¡this¡¡ambiguity¡¡is¡¡referred¡¡to¡¡as¡¡¡°disambiguating¡±¡¡
the¡¡word¡£¡¡Two¡¡models¡¡are¡¡proposed¡¡for¡¡disambiguation¡£¡¡

£¨i£©¡¡The¡¡constant¡¡order¡¡model¡¡states¡¡that£»¡¡regardless¡¡of¡¡the¡¡
context¡¡preceding¡¡the¡¡use¡¡of¡¡a¡¡word£»¡¡its¡¡meanings¡¡are¡¡
always¡¡tested¡¡in¡¡constant¡¡order£»¡¡from¡¡most¡¡to¡¡least¡¡
likely¡¡
£¨ii£©¡¡The¡¡reordering¡¡by¡¡context¡¡model¡¡states¡¡that¡¡the¡¡
context¡¡that¡¡precedes¡¡a¡¡word¡¡can¡¡change¡¡the¡¡order¡¡in¡¡
which¡¡one¡¡tests¡¡its¡¡multiple¡¡definitions¡¡
£¨iii£©¡¡Context¡¡actively¡¡affects¡¡listener¡¯s¡¡consideration¡¡of¡¡the¡¡
meanings¡¡of¡¡ambiguous¡¡words¡¡
2¡£¡¡Products¡¡of¡¡Understanding¡¡
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CHAPTER¡¡9£º¡¡COGNITIVE¡¡PROCESSES¡¡

a£©¡¡Research¡¡suggests¡¡that¡¡meaning¡¡representations¡¡that¡¡follow¡¡

understanding¡¡of¡¡utterances¡¡or¡¡texts¡¡begin¡¡with¡¡basic¡¡units¡¡
called¡¡propositions¡£¡¡Propositions¡¡are¡¡the¡¡main¡¡ideas¡¡of¡¡
utterances¡£¡¡

b£©¡¡Listeners¡¡often¡¡fill¡¡gaps¡¡in¡¡information¡¡with¡¡inferences¡£¡¡
Inferences¡¡are¡¡logical¡¡assumptions¡¡made¡¡possible¡¡by¡¡
information¡¡in¡¡memory¡£¡¡

C¡£¡¡Language£»¡¡Thought£»¡¡and¡¡Culture¡¡
1¡£¡¡The¡¡Sapir¡­Whorf¡¡hypothesis¡¡suggests¡¡that¡¡differences¡¡in¡¡language¡¡create¡¡
differences¡¡in¡¡thought¡£¡¡The¡¡hypothesis¡¡contains¡¡two¡¡tenets£º¡¡
a£©¡¡Linguistic¡¡Relativity¡¡

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