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and the cognitive distortions created while reconstructing memories。 Shows what it is like to have 
no memory at all�察�how real learning involves the transfer of information from short´term to long´
term memory�察�and how the use of retrieval cues can improve one¨s ability to remember。 

Memory ��1990��。 Insight Media�察�30 minutes 

Biological and cognitive research findings related to how we store�察�encode�察�and retrieve memories 
are discussed by leading memory researchers。 The program shows what memory disturbances are 
and how certain problems can results from accidents or disease。 Memory of dramatic events is 
analyzed and the practical application of memory research to witness recall in criminal trials is 

141 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

discussed。 

Memory�此�Fabric of the Mind ��1998��。 FFHS�察�28 minutes 

Examines information storage and retrieval in human memory。 A good review of memory research 
and theory。 Selected for preview at the APA convention in 1989。 

The Life of the Mind�此�Cognitive Processes and Memory ��1991��。 The Teaching pany�察�in 
collaboration with the Smithsonian。 

One of eight lectures with Richard Gerrig from an award´winning teacher series。 This volume 
explores cognitive processes and memory。 

142 


CHAPTER 8�此�MEMORY 

143 


CHAPTER 9 
Cognitive Processes 

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 

On pletion of this chapter�察�students should be able to�此�

1。 Describe the differences and similarities between automatic and controlled processes 
2。 Define Grice¨s maxims for language production 
3。 Describe the various forms of ambiguity in language prehension 
4。 Explain the significance of inference in the cognitive processing of language 
5。 Demonstrate understanding of the significance of Paivio¨s dual´coding theory 
6。 Define ^problem space�察院�and its relationship to problemsolving 
7。 Suggests techniques to improve problem solving skills 
8。 Elaborate on the difference between deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning 
9。 Understand the heuristics and biases involved in judgments and decision making 
10。 Articulate the significance of framing and reference points relative to decision making 
CHAPTER OUTLINE 

I。 Studying Cognition 
A。 Definitions 
1。 Cognition is a general term for all forms of knowing 
2。 The contents of cognition are what you know!concepts�察�facts�察�
propositions�察�rules�察�and memories 
3。 Cognitive processes are how you manipulate these mental contents 
4。 Cognitive psychology is the study of cognition 
B。 Discovering the Processes of Mind 
1。 Donders devised the subtraction method�察�one of the fundamental 
methodologies for studying mental processes 
2。 He proposed that extra mental steps will often result in more time 
required to perform a given task 
3。 Response selection requires more time than stimulus categorization�察�
because response selection includes stimulus categorization 
4。 Reaction time has replaced the subtraction method as a method of 
testing specific accounts of how a given cognitive process is carried 
out 
C。 Mental Processes and Mental Resources 
1。 Demands on mental resources may help determine if a process is 
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CHAPTER 9�此�COGNITIVE PROCESSES 

serial or parallel 

a�� Serial processes require separate examination of each 
individual element in an array�察�one after another 

b�� Parallel processes entail the simultaneous examination of all 
elements in an array 

2。 Reaction time is often used to try to determine if a specific mental 
process is carried out in parallel or serially 
3。 A key assumption is that limited processing resources must be spread 
over different mental tasks 
4。 Attentional processes are responsible for distributing these resources 
5。 Some processes place higher demands on mental resources dm do 
others 
6。 Controlled processes require attention and thus greater allocation of 
mental resources 
7。 Automatic processes generally do not require attention and can often be 
performed along with other tasks without interference 
D。 The goal of much cognitive psychological research is to invent experiments that confirm 
each of the ponents of models that bine serial and parallel�察�and controlled and 
automatic processes 
II。Language Use 
A。 Language Production 
1。 Language production concerns what people say�察�as well as the 
processes they go through to produce the message 
a�� Includes both signing and writing�察�as well as speaking 

b�� Refers to language producers as speakers and to language 
understanders as listeners 

2。 Audience design requires that�察�on producing an utterance�察�one must 
have in mind the audience to which that utterance is directed and 
what knowledge you share with members of that audience 
a�� The Cooperative Principle is instructs to speakers to produce 
utterances appropriate to the setting and meaning of the 
ongoing conversation。 There are four maxims that cooperative 
speakers should live by�此�

��i�� Quantity�此�Make your contribution as informative as is 
required�察�but do not make it more informative than 
required 
��ii�� Quality�此�Try to make your contribution one that is true 
��iii�� Relation�此�Be relevant 
��iv�� Manner�此�Be perspicacious�察�avoid obscurity of 
expression�察�avoid ambiguity�察�be brief�察�be orderly 
b�� A presumption of the listener knowing all that you know is 
referred to as mon ground。 Judgments of mon ground 
are based on three sources of evidence�此�

145 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

��i�� munity membership�此�Assumptions made by 
language producers about what is likely to be 
mutually known�察�based on shared membership in 
munities of various sizes 
��ii�� Linguistic copresence�此�Assumptions made by language 
producers that information contained in earlier parts 
of a conversation�察�or in past conversations�察�are 
mon ground 
��iii�� Physical copresence�此�Exists when a speaker and a 
listener are directly in the physical presence of objects 
or situations 
3。 Speech Execution and Speech Errors 
a�� Speech errors give researchers insight into the planning 
needed to produce utterances 

��i�� Speakers must choose content words that best fit their 
ideas 
��ii�� Speakers must place the chosen words in the right 
place in the utterance 
��iii�� Speakers must fill in the sounds that make up the 
words they wish to utter 
b�� Spoonerisms�Cone type of speech error�Cconsist of an exchange 
of the initial sounds of two or more words in a phrase or 
sentence。 Spoonerisms are more likely to occur when the error 
will still result in real words 

c�� Spontaneous and laboratory induced errors provide evidence 
about processes and representations in speech execution 

B。 Language Understanding 
1。 Resolving ambiguity involves detangling two types of ambiguity 
a�� Structural ambiguity involves determining which of two ��or 
more�� meanings the structure of a sentence implies�察�and is 
dependent largely on prior context for resolution 

b�� Lexical ambiguity involves determining which of the various 
meanings of a word may be appropriate in this context。 To 
eliminate this ambiguity is referred to as ^disambiguating ̄ 
the word。 Two models are proposed for disambiguation。 

��i�� The constant order model states that�察�regardless of the 
context preceding the use of a word�察�its meanings are 
always tested in constant order�察�from most to least 
likely 
��ii�� The reordering by context model states that the 
context that precedes a word can change the order in 
which one tests its multiple definitions 
��iii�� Context actively affects listener¨s consideration of the 
meanings of ambiguous words 
2。 Products of Understanding 
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CHAPTER 9�此�COGNITIVE PROCESSES 

a�� Research suggests that meaning representations that follow 

understanding of utterances or texts begin with basic units 
called propositions。 Propositions are the main ideas of 
utterances。 

b�� Listeners often fill gaps in information with inferences。 
Inferences are logical assumptions made possible by 
information in memory。 

C。 Language�察�Thought�察�and Culture 
1。 The Sapir´Whorf hypothesis suggests that differences in language create 
differences in thought。 The hypothesis contains two tenets�此�
a�� Linguistic Relativity 

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