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心理学与生活-第75章

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of the interactions change in order for intimacy needs 
to be met 
(ii) Selective social interaction theory proposes that as we 
age; we bee more selective in choosing social 
partners who satisfy our emotional needs 
2。 Generativity 
a) Generativity refers to mitment beyond oneself to family; 
work; society; or future generations 

b) Erikson’s last crisis of adulthood is the conflict between ego…
integrity and despair 

c) Most adults review their lives with a sense of wholeness and 
satisfaction 

3。 The Cultural Construction of Late Adulthood: addresses cultural 
beliefs and expectations about later life; the stereotypical depictions of 
the elderly 
a) Overall stereotype is negative 

b) Stereotype may serve to change the lifestyle experience of 
older adults for the worse 

c) Negative expectations of their performance by the elderly may 
lead to impaired performance 

d) Caretakers may artificially bring about patterns of increased 
dependence via the dependency…support script 

e) Ageism is prejudice against older people that leads to 

195 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

discrimination that limits their opportunities; isolates them; 

and fosters negative self…images 

VI。 Gender Development 
A。 Early human differences perceived by children are entirely social—they sense sex 
differences before acquiring anatomical knowledge 
B。 Sex and Gender 
1。 Sex differences are biologically based characteristics that distinguish 
males from females 
a) Include different reproductive functions and differences in 
anatomy and hormones 

b) Differences are universal; biologically determined; and 
unchanged by social influence 

c) Over time; sex differences have led to development of 
traditional social roles for males and females 

2。 Gender is a psychological phenomenon; referring to learned; sex…
related behaviors and attitudes 
3。 Gender identity is the individual’s sense of maleness or femaleness; 
and includes awareness and acceptance of one’s own sex 
a) Develops at an early age 
b) Is important to child’s psychological well…being 

C。 The Acquisition of Gender Roles 
1。 Gender roles are patterns of behavior regarded as appropriate for males 
and females within a given society 
a) Provide basic definitions of masculinity and femininity 

b) Much of what is considered masculine or feminine is 
culturally determined 

c) Gender…role socialization begins at birth; with parental 
responses to the infant being based on gender…role stereotypes 

VII。 Moral Development 
A。 Morality is a system of beliefs; values; and underlying judgments about the rightness or 
wrongness of human acts 
B。 Kolhberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning 
1。 Kohlberg founded his study of moral development on the study of 
moral reasoning; the judgments people make about what courses of 
action are correct or incorrect in particular situations 

2。 Kohlberg’s theory predicated on Piagetian cognitive…development 
theory (i。e。; as the child progresses through the stages of cognitive 
growth; he/she assigns differing relative weights to the consequences 
196 


CHAPTER 11: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 

of an act and to the actor’s intentions) 

3。 Each of Kohlberg’s levels and stages is characterized by a different 
basis for making moral judgments; he was interested in the course of 
action involved in making a moral decision; not the decision itself 
a) Level 1: Preconventional Morality 

(i) Stage 1: Pleasure–pain orientation; reasons for 
behaviors is to avoid pain or not get caught 
(ii) Stage 2: Cost–benefit orientation; reciprocity; reasons 
for behaviors are to obtain rewards 
b) Level II: Conventional Morality 

(i) Stage 3: Good child orientation; behavior is enacted to 
gain acceptance and avoid disapproval 
(ii) Stage 4: Law and order orientation; behavior is 
enacted to follow the rules; and avoid censure by 
authorities 
c) Level III: Principled Morality 

(i) Stage 5: Social contract orientation; to promote social 
welfare 
(ii) Stage 6: Ethical principle orientation; to achieve 
justice and avoid self…condemnation 
(iii) Stage 7: Cosmic orientation; to be true to universal 
principles; feeling oneself part of a cosmic direction 
that transcends social norms 
4。 Four Principles Govern Kohlberg’s Stage Model: 
a) An individual can be at only one of the indicated stages at a 
given time 

b) Everyone goes through the stages in a fixed order 

c) Each stage is more prehensive and plex than the 
preceding one 

d) The same stages occur in every culture 

5。 Stages 1 through 3 appear to parallel the course of cognitive 
development; with most children reaching stage 3 by age 13; with 
much of the controversy with Kohlberg’s theory aimed at stages 4 
through 7 
6。 Moral Reasoning in Adolescents and Adults 
a) Kohlberg’s view was that moral development would continue 
in steady progression; beyond level 3; however; not all 
individuals attain stages 4 through 7 

b) Many adults never reach stage 5; and few go beyond it 

c) Stages 4 through 7 are not found in all cultures and seem 
more associated with advanced education and increased 
verbal ability in Western cultures; features that should not be 
prerequisites for moral achievement 

C。 Gender and Cultural Perspectives on Moral Reasoning 
197 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

1。 Content of latter stages appears subjective 
2。 Understanding each successive latter stage as “more prehensive 
and sophisticated than the preceding” is difficult 
3。 Latter stages have been criticized because they do not recognize that 
adult moral judgments may reflect different but equally moral 
principles 
a) Gilligan argued Kohlberg’s work was biased in that his 
original sample was all male 

b) Kohlberg’s research overlooked potential differences between 
habitual moral judgments of males and females 

c) Gilligan proposed female’s moral development was based on 
a standard of caring for others; and progressing to a stage of 
self…realization; whereas males base their reasoning on a 
standard of justice 

4。 Though Gilligan’s contribution is valued; later research suggests she 
is incorrect to identify unique styles of moral reasoning for males and 
females 
a) Researchers dispute whether gender differences in moral 
reasoning exist 

b) Alleged gender differences may be consequences of the 
difference in social situations that arise in the lives of males 
and females 

c) Studies of gender differences in moral behaviors have found 
no consistent differences 

5。 Adult moral reasoning may best be characterized as a mix between 
considerations of justice and considerations of caring; with the mix 
remaining in place over most of the life span 
a) Moral judgments are affected by general changes in adult 
cognition。 

b) A relevant change in late adulthood is the individual’s 
shifting the basis for judgments away from the details of 
specific situations; and toward the use of general principles 

198 


CHAPTER 11: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 

1。 In several well…publicized cases; judges have returned custody of children to the biological 
parents; removing the child from his or her adoptive parents or foster parents。 This would 
seem to indicate that there is still a sense of ownership of children in the eyes of the law。 
What do such decisions indicate about the status of the rights of the individual child in 
such cases? Whose “best interests” and rights are the courts protecting? 
2。 Does the class consider adolescence a concept created by developmental psychologists and 
socioeconomic conditions; rather than an actual stage of development? What overall 
societal impact might we see if children today went to work at age 10 or 12; rather than 
remaining in school until they reach 17 or 18 years of age? What was the societal impact of 
work rather than education in years past? What other developmental categories could be 
reframed today; or may need to be reframed in the future? 
3。 Many elderly individuals develop paranoid beliefs。 Some lay persons as well as 
professio

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