心理学与生活-第77章
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change noted in brain tissue is the appearance of fibers in the cytoplasm of neurons。 Dr。 Alois
Alzheimer called these fibers neurofibrillary tangles。 He also observed that some neurons appeared
to have shriveled； with their dendrites deteriorating to the degree that the cell could no longer
function； causing the neurons to collapse。 Alzheimer referred to sections of the brain where clusters
of the collapsed neurons were found as neuritic plaques。
In spite of scientific advances in knowledge about Alzheimer’s disease； for the patient and the
patient’s family； the disease remains irreversible； incurable； and virtually untreatable。 Custodial
care by a family member at home or in an institution is generally required as the disorder
progresses； in order to prevent the patient from hurting him… or herself or wandering off and getting
lost。 The nature of the disease is best described as regressive in that a once…petent adult loses
the ability to think rationally； language deteriorates； temper tantrums like those of early childhood
may occur； motor skills are lost； and finally； with loss of the ability to feed oneself and to control the
bladder and bowels； the regression to an infant…like state is plete。
Critical Periods： The Story of Genie
In 1970； a 13…year…old girl was discovered in Los Angeles。 Her name was Genie； and the conditions
in which she was found were appalling。 Genie had been treated like an animal since the age of 20
months。 She was confined to a small； curtained room and spent most of her days strapped to a
potty…chair； unable to move except for her hands and feet。 At night； Genie was confined in a cage…
like crib； and restrained in a straightjacket…type garment。 She had no bowel or bladder control；
could not stand in an erect posture； was severely malnourished； and was unable to chew solid
food。 Genie was also mute； she could not speak and could not understand language。 The only
sounds she had ever heard were those made by her father on the occasions he beat her for crying or
making noises。 Genie had been held prisoner by her father； a man who never spoke to her； and
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
would not allow anyone else to do so。
Genie was removed from her father’s custody； and taken to Los Angeles Children’s Hospital； where
she was nursed back to physical health。 She underwent psychological evaluation to determine her
mental status and level of cognitive functioning； including her ability to produce and prehend
language。 Following all necessary assessments； psychologists embarked on the task of teaching
Genie language。 Because Genie was attempting to acquire language at age 13； her psychologists
were presented with a unique opportunity to study the critical period theory relative to learning
language； the notion that there is a time early in a child’s life when language learning must begin； if
language is to be learned at all。 Genie was far past that proposed critical period。 Further； she knew
no grammar and had virtually no language ability。
The researchers working with Genie approached the task of teaching her language in much the
same manner they would teach a younger child； by direct exposure to spoken language as a
function of engagement in daily activities。 Initially； Genie would speak only one or two words at a
time； but she did progress； up to a point。 Though she eventually progressed to the degree of
bining two and three words into phrases； she never progressed beyond the level of a 3… or 4year…
old child in her language abilities； and never made the progression from simple words into
grammatically correct sentences。
The fact that Genie actually did acquire some facility for language denied support for the
hypothesis that there is a critical period for language acquisition； and that this period falls
somewhere between age 2 and puberty。 However； Genie’s failure to attain fluency and grammar did
point to the potential for an optimal period for language acquisition； a period that； if missed； would
result in failure ever to attain plete facility for language。 Unfortunately； no more specific
information could be gained from Genie’s experiences； because her lack of facility for language
could be attributable to her severely malnourished state； the emotional and physical abuse suffered
at the hands of her father； and her social isolation； as much as to a potential optimal period for
language acquisition。
By age 24； Genie had received 11 years of special education and rehabilitation to include foster care；
yet her language capability remained short of that expected in a 5…year…old child。 Did Genie miss
her critical period for language acquisition？ We do not know。 Her plight has offered many insights
to developmental psychologists； but many final answers remain elusive。
Craig； G。 J。； & Kermis； M。 D。 （1995）。 Children Today。 Englewood Cliffs； NJ： Prentice…Hall。
Stage Theory： What Is a “Stage Theory？”
As instructors； we are familiar with “stage” theories； as we spend a great deal of time studying
them。 Freud’s stages of psychosexual development； Erikson’s eight stages of man； Kohlberg’s stages
of moral development； and Piaget’s stages of cognitive development are part of our world； but what
is implied to our students when we refer to a given theory as a “stage theory”？
Reber （1985） defines stage theory as “a label applicable to any theory of development that
characterizes growth； be it physical； sensory…motor； cognitive； moral； etc。； as a progression through
a sequence of stages” （p。 724）。 He further states that stage theories tend to be either maturational or
interactional in nature； that they are biologically determined or result from interactions between
biological and experiential factors。
Actually； even if we didn’t use the word “stage” in referring to many of our psychological theories；
we would still be able to easily discern which theories are stage theories and which are not； because
there are four properties that define stage theories。 Without any one of these properties； you do not
have a stage theory。 These properties are：
· A stage theory must predict qualitative differences in behavior； over both time and
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CHAPTER 11： HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN
experience
。 A stage theory must assume invariance of the sequence of stages
。 A stage theory assumes structural cohesiveness of a stage； the behaviors within a stage
must share a mon conceptual base
。 There must be a hierarchical integration of structures from stage to stage； so that later
stages incorporate and expand on the structures from earlier stages
Now； back to our question； what does the term stage theory imply and subsequently mean to our
students？ First； it means that a stage theory is presumed to be universal—which is what “over both
time and experience means。 Piaget’s theory of cognitive development offers an easy example。 Piaget
proposed that children； regardless of nationality； ethnicity； or sociocultural background； all
experience their intellectual development in the same way。 The same sequence of events unfolds；
regardless of where the child lives and under what conditions。 Further； Piaget proposed that the
changes were not only predictable and universal； but that the changes were qualitatively different
as the child moved from one stage to the next。 For example； a 7…year…old child can conserve liquid；
but a 4…year…old cannot。 That is a qualitative difference in the thought process； and it is a function of
the developmental process。
Second； stage theories and stage theorists believe that there can be no latitude in the progression of
the stages of development。 In Eriksonian terms； a child must resolve the trust/mistrust conflict and
learn to trust before he or she can move onto the stage of autonomy versus self…doubt； because
unless the trust/mistrust conflict has been resolved； the child has no possibility of resolving the
autonomy issue。 Stage 1 must precede stages 2； 3； 4； and so on。
Third； cohesiveness of a stage and a mon conceptual base indicate that the stage itself must fit
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