心理学与生活-第8章
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both correct answers and page references from the text。
。 Create an exam that can be pleted in 30 minutes （25–30 multiple…choice questions） and
devote the rest of a 50…minute class to feedback。 Ask students to jot down their answers on their
own paper after they plete the test。 Then collect the students’ answer sheets； while students
retain their notes of their answers and the test。 Review the test items； allowing students to ask
questions about perceived ambiguous items。 At the end of the class； collect the tests and the
students’ notes。 With this procedure； you only have to return the graded answer sheets in order
for students to receive maximum feedback。
How can I avoid hassles about test items？
First； select and write items carefully； being sure that you agree that the keyed answer is the best answer。
Then make your key carefully。 Examine the printout of scores before posting it； and check any item for
ambiguity or incorrect keying if half or more of the students miss it。 If you make a mistake in your choice of
items or on the key； correct it graciously。
Do not spend class time arguing about test items。 Have students submit their case in writing if they feel that
their choice for an item is better than the keyed answer。
DECISIONS ABOUT EVALUATION
Should I use numbers or letters to grade students’ work？
Any activity that is to contribute to students’ grades should be assigned a numerical score so an
unambiguous point system can be used for determining final grades。 Some students have difficulty
understanding that an A on a minor assignment is not weighted as heavily as a D on the final exam。
If you use large numbers； particularly for a large class； the range of final totals for students is larger and the
cutoff between letter grades appears reasonable。
How will I assign final grades？
There are two traditional methods for assigning grades； the criterion…based system and the normative…based
or on…the…curve system。
In criterion…based grading； criteria are published in the syllabus。 For example； if a student gets 92 percent to
100 percent of the maximum number of points； the student can be assured of an A。 This method is preferred
by the majority of instructors because it is easy for students to understand and acmodates variability in
the performance of different classes。
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In normative…based grading it is predetermined that you will； for example； give an A to the top 10 percent of
students； a B to students in the next 20 percent； and so forth。 This method has the advantage of not
requiring you to mit yourself to absolute criteria； but it has the disadvantage of causing some students
to be uncertain about where they stand during the term。 Also； normative…based grading assumes that your
class is a random sample of students who take introductory courses at your school and does not take into
account that some classes as a whole are better than others。 Identical student performance could earn an A
in one class and a B in another when the normative…based system is used。
Should I use standard scores？
Most students have difficulty understanding standard scores。 （How can a score of zero be a C？ Does a
negative score mean that I know less than nothing does？） Standard scores also have the disadvantage of
having a small range。 One situation in which standard scores should be considered is when the test means
for the term are unequal and you are dropping students’ lowest test scores。
DECISIONS ABOUT EXTRA CREDIT WORK
Should I provide an opportunity for students to get course credit for work that is not a class requirement？ If
you fail to state a firm policy on extra credit work in the syllabus； you will be visited by failing students
during the closing weeks of the term。 They would like to write papers； or do something to raise their grades。
A no…extra credit policy is advised； with the rationale that students who are failing the required work would
be better off spending their time on the text rather than writing a paper that is likely to be poorly written or
plagiarized。
If there are to be opportunities for extra credit； they should be available to all students； not just those who
e to your office with sad stories。 For your best students； extra credit work is likely to be perceived as
required； and you may find that they are more likely to take advantage of opportunities to earn points than
students who need them more。
Extra credit work will increase your workload。 The bookkeeping for volunteer work or research
participation can be a headache； and rewritten or replaced papers means more papers to read and grade。
However； this should not deter you if you can provide extra credit work that is truly a beneficial experience
for students。
What kind of extra credit opportunities could I provide？
One extra credit option that is a learning experience for students and a service to the munity is
volunteer work in places such as sheltered workshops； child care centers； nursing homes； and shelters for
the homeless。 If you can arrange this type of activity； be sure to set a limit on the amount of credit that can be
earned。
Introductory students are frequently an important source of human subjects for research。 If research
participation is not a requirement at your school； you might consider using it as an extra credit option。
If you assign several short papers during the term； you could allow students to rewrite or replace a paper
that has received a low score。 Rewriting a poor paper based on your ments and corrections can be
especially beneficial for students who need help with writing skills。
WRITTEN ASSIGNMENTS IN THE INTRODUCTORY
COURSE
As student’s writing skills have deteriorated； educators have bee increasingly reluctant to include
writing assignments as a course requirement。 If this deterioration is to be reversed； it seems apparent that
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instructors in disciplines other than English must assume some of the responsibility for providing writing
experiences for students。
DESIGNING WRITING ASSIGNMENTS
The assignments should be related to the objectives of the course。 They should increase insight into
psychological concepts； develop critical thinking skills； or stimulate personal growth。 The form of the
assignments can be：
。 A take…home paper in which students answer a specific question。
。 A psychological diary。 In writing the diary； students describe everyday experiences related to
what they are learning in class。 For example； a student hears a mercial for a cold remedy on
TV； and wonders about the basis of the claim that the product is twice as effective as remedy X；
or a student notes that her father trots out all his dissonance…reducing strategies whenever
something goes wrong with the lemon he bought。
。 In…class papers。 Students write a paragraph in class expressing their opinion on an issue；
evaluating a film； or describing an experience。 It is probably best not to grade these mini…
papers； but it may encourage attendance if students are rewarded with a few points for
participation。
The assignment should be clearly worded and specific。 Instruction about the form of the paper should give
detailed instructions on how the paper is to be prepared。 The topics of papers should be described in such a
way that the possibility of misinterpretation is minimized。 You may need to give a systematic plan for a
paper or to enumerate the points you expect to be covered。 You can select questions from those provided in
the test bank or create your own。 Here is a list of verbs you may find useful as you create effective essay
questions：
advise pare contrast apply
illustrate evaluate criticize summarize
relate design analyze predict
trace justify
take sides on the controversy between
explore the implications of
Specify a specific purpose or audience for the paper。 The instructor is the traditional audience for student
papers； and since you know so much； students tend to expect that you will not need important information
or explanation。 An example of a specific purpose would be “to e
