心理学与生活-第9章

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papers；　and　since　you　know　so　much；　students　tend　to　expect　that　you　will　not　need　important　information　
or　explanation。　An　example　of　a　specific　purpose　would　be　“to　encourage　a　friend　to　see　a　behavior　
therapist　about　a　particular　phobia。”　The　targeted　audience　could　be　students　who　have　not　taken　

introductory　psychology；　the　readers　of　Parents’　magazine；　or　a　person　who　has　written　to　Dear　Abby　about　
a　psychological　problem。　

Inform　students　about　how　their　papers　will　be　evaluated。　This　information；　as　well　as　other　details；　can　be　
specified　in　a　handout；　“All　you　need　to　know　about　writing　assignments。”　This　can　be　part　of　the　syllabus　
or　distributed　separately。　Suggestions　for　the　handout　are　outlined　below。　

。　General　discussion　of　written　assignments：　In　this　section　inform　students　how　many　papers　are　
required；　how　long　they　are　to　be；　how　topics　are　to　be　selected；　and　whether　papers　that　receive　
a　low　score　can　be　rewritten。　Students　should　not　be　allowed　to　write　more　than　one　paper　
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related　to　a　chapter。　Assign　specific　due　dates　for　the　papers　throughout　the　term　to　prevent　
students　from　handing　in　all　their　papers　on　the　last　day　of　the　term。　

。　Specific　guidelines　for　preparation　of　papers：　In　this　section　tell　students　such　things　as：　use　8。　by　
11　paper；　write　on　one　side　only；　put　the　title；　assignment　number　and　your　name　at　the　top　of　
the　first　page；　type　using　double…spacing　and　one…inch　margins；　don’t　use　plastic　covers　or　
binders。　It　is　a　good　idea　to　discuss　plagiarism　in　this　section　and　to　indicate　how　students　
should　handle　quoted　material。　
。　Evaluation　criteria：　The　three　traditional　criteria　for　evaluation　of　papers　are　content　or　ideas；　
organization；　and　mechanics。　You　may　want　to　assign　weights　to　each　of　these　criteria。　For　
example；　if　the　maximum　number　of　points　for　a　paper　is　25；　you　might　assign　12　for　content；　8　
for　organization；　and　5　for　mechanics。　
。　Topics：　Provide　a　chapter…by…chapter　list　of　the　topics　from　which　students　can　choose。　Having　
this　list　at　the　beginning　of　the　term　gives　students　a　chance　to　make　tentative　choices　of　topics　
that　interest　them。　
EVALUATING　STUDENT　WRITING　

There　are　two　extremes　to　be　avoided　in　evaluating　papers。　One　is　over　grading　or　providing　excessive　
feedback　and　the　other　is　putting　a　grade　on　the　paper　with　no　marks　or　ments　to　justify　your　
evaluation。　

To　avoid　both　extremes；　it　is　best　to　devise　an　evaluation　plan　that　is　relatively　easy　to　use　and　to　
municate　to　students。　One　author　suggested　drawing　a　straight　line　under　ideas　or　other　aspects　of　a　
paper　that　you　particularly　like　and　drawing　a　wavy　line　under　passages　that　are　poorly　written　or　
confusing。　This　system　can　be　extended　by　developing　a　code　to　indicate　the　reason　for　a　wavy　line；　for　

example；　G　for　poor　grammar；　U　for　unsupported　generalization；　I　for　irrelevance；　and　E　for　erroneous　
information　or　conclusion。　

Critical　thinking　is　an　aspect　of　student　writing　that　you　may　want　to　emphasize　in　evaluating　papers。　Here　
is　one　set　of　guidelines　for　evaluating　critical　thinking：　

。　Ask　questions；　be　willing　to　wonder。　
。　Define　the　problem。　
。　Examine　the　evidence。　
。　Analyze　assumptions　and　biases。　
。　Avoid　emotional　reasoning：　“If　I　feel　this　way；　it　must　be　true。”　
。　Do　not　oversimplify。　
。　Consider　other　interpretations。　
。　Tolerate　uncertainty。　
There　may　be　nothing　you　can　do　for　your　students　that　will　benefit　them　as　much　as　writing　assignments。　
Many　students　find　writing　distasteful　but　are　aware　of　their　deficiency　in　written　munication　and　
apprehensive　about　the　implications　of　the　problem　for　future　employment。　

WHAT　TO　DO　WHEN　THE　EARTHQUAKE　ES　

Even　the　best…laid　plans　of　effective　teachers　occasionally　go　awry。　If　you　are　not　uptight　and　excessively　
formal　about　what　should　and　ought　to　happen　in　your　class；　these　events　can　often　be　turned　to　your　
advantage；　to　reveal　your　human　side　or　to　capitalize　on　the　attention　and　emotional　involvement　they　
generate　to　bring　some　academic　points　home　more　forcefully　than　you　could　normally。　Here　are　some　
suggestions　to　help　you　go　with　the　flow：　

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YOU　HAVE　MADE　A　MISTAKE　

Admit　it；　laugh　at　it；　correct　it；　consider　why　you　made　it；　and　thank　the　person　who　discovered　it。　If　you　are　
unsure　of　what　is　wrong；　ask　some　specific　person　in　the　audience　to　tell　you　why　the　students　are　reacting　
as　they　are。　

RULE　VIOLATION　

When　the　class　is　disrupted　by　deliberate　rebellion—individual　or　collective—or　when　someone　is　violating　
some　implicit　rule　of　yours；　handle　the　problem　directly　and　immediately。　Do　not　ignore　it。　Do　not　try　to　
continue　with　planned　material。　Determine　first　what　the　nature　of　the　disruption　is；　how　representative　it　
is　of　the　whole　class；　and　whether　the　apparent　explanation　is　a　valid　one　（e。g。；　students　who　are　leaving　
early　are　on　their　way　to　some　required　athletic　activity　or　students　are　inattentive　due　to　a　hearing　
difficulty）。　Assume　it　is　a　valid　protest　until　proved　otherwise。　If；　for　example；　you　are　distressed　by　a　
student　reading　the　newspaper　right　in　front　of　you；　stop　and　say　so。　Say　it　is　upsetting；　ask　the　student　to　
put　it　away；　or　alternately；　ask　the　student　to　leave　and　read　it　outside。　It　is　not　necessary　to　embarrass　the　
student；　but　you　can　set　a　firm　but　gentle　example　of　the　classroom　decorum　you　expect。　It　is　always　
advisable　to　speak　personally　to　any　such　disrupting　student　afterward　to　explain　your　action　in　a　
nonthreatening　manner。　Many　potential　sources　of　trouble　are　won　over　with　such　demonstrations　of　
personal　attention　and　caring。　

CHALLENGES　TO　YOUR　AUTHORITY　

You　will　encounter　a　variety　of　“problem”　students。　Do　not　use　your　position　as　an　authority　to　beat　them　
down　in　class。　Such　students　often　respond　positively　to　a　personal　meeting　after　class　to　discuss　the　nature　
of　the　problem。　This　open　recognition　may　be　all　that　is　necessary；　the　student　may　be　calling　for　help；　may　
want　to　be　given　some　limits；　or　may　be　able　to　tell　you　where　you　are　going　wrong　and　losing　student　
interest。　The　best　way　to　establish　your　intellectual　authority　is　through　establishing　an　open；　
democratically　run　class；　not　an　authoritarian　one。　

SUMMARY：　TEN　TIPS　FOR　SUCCESSFUL　
TEACHING　

For　most　students；　the　introductory　psychology　course　will　be　the　only　psychology　course　they　will　ever　
take。　While　a　good　text　and　helpful　ancillaries　certainly　contribute　to　a　successful　introductory　course；　the　
teacher　often　makes　the　difference　between　a　bad　and　a　good　class　or　between　a　good　class　and　an　
outstanding　one。　Personal　variables–such　as　the　respect　you　show　for　the　subject　matter；　the　concern　you　
show　for　students’　understanding　of　psychology；　and　the　care　with　which　you　prepare　your　class　
presentations–are　critical　factors　that　will　influence　your　students’　impressions　of　psychology　throughout　
the　term　and　beyond。　Your　classroom　behavior　also　has　important　practical　implications；　because　it　
determines　whether　some　of　your　students　enroll　in　other　psychology　classes　or　bee　psychology　majors。　
In　sum；　you　are　a　representative　of　psychology　as　both　a　science　and　career；　and　as　such；　your　actions　reflect　
the　field’s　professional　values　and　standards。　Below　are　ten　tips　for　teaching　introductory　psychology。　

BE　PREPARED　

There　is　simply　no　substitute　for　knowing　your　subject　matter。　Contrary　to　popular　opinion；　introductory　
students　are　very　perceptive。　A　teacher　who　is　ill　prepared　to　discuss　the　subject　material　or　to　field　
students’　questions　will　soon　be　discovered；　resulting　in　large…scale　student　apathy。　Beyond　knowledge　of　
the　subject　matter；　it　is　also　important　to　schedule　enough　time　for　adequate　preparation。　A　teacher　
cramming　for　a　presentation　is　likely　to　meet　with　the　same　result　as　a　student　cramming　for　an　

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examination—failure。　If　you　plan　to　use　audiovisual　aids；　get　to　class　a　few　minutes　early　to　ensure　the　
equipment　is　working　properly；　the　slides　are　right　side　up；　the　microphone　is　working　properly；　etc。　
Students　resent　your　tak