心理学与生活-第99章

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d）　Humanistic　theories　emphasize　present　phenomenal　reality　
or　future　goals　
e）　Cognitive　and　self　theories　emphasize　past　and　present　（and　
future；　in　the　instance　of　goal…setting）　

4。　Consciousness　versus　Unconsciousness　
a）　Trait　theories　pay　little　attention　to　this　distinction　
b）　Freudian　theory　emphasizes　unconscious　processes　
c）　Humanistic；　social…learning；　and　cognitive　theories　
emphasize　conscious　processes　
d）　Self　theories　are　unclear　

5。　Inner　Disposition　versus　Outer　Situation　
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a）　Trait　theories　emphasize　dispositional　factors　
b）　Social…learning　theories　emphasize　situational　factors　
c）　All　others　allow　interaction　between　person…based　and　

situation…based　variables　

B。　Theoretical　Contributions　to　Understanding　of　Human　Personality　
1。　Trait　theories　provide　a　catalog；　describing　parts　and　structures　
2。　Psychodynamic　theories　add　a　powerful　engine　and　fuel　to　get　the　
vehicle　moving　
3。　Humanistic　theories　put　the　person　in　the　driver’s　seat　
4。　Social…learning　theories　supply　the　steering　wheel；　directional　signals；　
and　other　regulation　equipment　
5。　Cognitive　theories　add　reminders　that　the　way　the　trip　is　planned；　
organized；　and　remembered　will　be　affected　by　the　mental　map　the　
driver　selects　for　the　journey　
6。　Self　theories　remind　the　driver　to　consider　the　image　his　or　her　driving　
ability　projects　to　back…seat　drivers　and　pedestrians　
VIII。　Assessing　Personality　
A。　Objective　Tests　
1。　Minnesota　Multiphasic　Personality　Inventory　（MMPI）；　developed　
using　empirical　strategy；　is　most　frequently　used　personality　inventory　
a）　Items　included　on　scales　only　if　they　clearly　differentiated　
between　two　groups　

b）　Each　item　demonstrates　its　validity　by　being　answered　
similarly　by　members　within　each　group；　but　differently　
between　groups　

c）　Ten　clinical　scales；　each　differentiating　a　different　clinical　
group　

d）　Validity　scales　detect　suspicious　response　patterns　

e）　Major　revision　over　the　last　ten　years；　resulting　in　the　MMPI…2；　
added　fifteen　new　content　scales　

2。　The　NEO…Personality　Inventory　（NEO…PI）　
a）　Measures　the　five…factor　model　of　personality。　The　five　
dimensions　are：　

（i）　Neuroticism　
（ii）　Extraversion　
（iii）　Openness　
（iv）　Agreeableness　
（v）　Conscientiousness　
b）　A　new　inventory　based　on　the　five…factor　model；　The　Big　Five　
Questionnaire　（BFQ）；　is　designed　to　have　validity　across　
cultures　

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B。　Projective　Tests　
1。　Basics　
a）　Projective　tests　have　no　predetermined　range　of　responses；　but　
use　ambiguous　stimuli　

b）　Among　the　assessment　devices　most　monly　used　by　
psychological　practitioners　

c）　Used　more　frequently　outside　the　U。S。　than　are　objective　tests　
because　they　are　less　sensitive　to　language　variation　

2。　Specifics　
a）　The　Rorschach　test；　developed　by　Hermann　Rorschach；　uses　
ambiguous　stimuli　that　are　symmetrical　inkblots；　with　
responses　scored　on　three　major　features：　

（i）　Location　or　part　of　the　card　mentioned　in　the　
response—does　respondent　refer　to　the　whole　
stimulus　or　only　part　of　it？　
（ii）　Content　of　the　response；　nature　of　the　object　and　
activities　seen　
（iii）　Determinants；　those　aspects　of　the　card　that　prompted　
response　
（iv）　Correctly　utilized；　test　is　both　reliable　and　permits　
valid　assessments　about　the　underlying　personality　
b）　The　Thematic　Apperception　Test　（TAT）；　developed　by　Henry　
Murray　

（i）　Respondents　shown　pictures　of　ambiguous　scenes　
and　asked　to　generate　stories　about　them；　describing　
what　people　are　thinking　and　doing；　what　led　up　to　
each　event；　and　how　each　situation　will　end　
（ii）　Individual　administering　test　evaluates　structure　and　
content　of　stories；　as　well　as　behavior　of　individual　
telling　them；　attempting　to　discover　respondent’s　
major　concerns　motivations；　and　personality　
characteristics　
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DISCUSSION　QUESTIONS　

1。　Have　the　class　suppose　that　there　was　no　continuity　in　behavior　or　personality　and　that　we　
faced　each　situation　anew；　without　reference　to　prior　experiences　and　reactions。　Discuss　
with　the　class　the　changes　this　scenario　might　evoke　in　one’s　self…concept。　
2。　What　might　be　the　advantage　or　disadvantage　to　describing　the　personality　of　a　
developmentally　delayed　child　using　the　trait　orientation？　What　about　use　of　the　type　
orientation？　Ask　the　class　for　a　show　of　hands　indicating　how　many　prefer　each　
perspective。　Have　individual　class　members　indicate　why　they　prefer　one　perspective　to　the　
other。　
3。　In　what　sense　does　our　personality　limit　our　freedom　to　act？　In　what　sense　does　our　
personality　give　us　greater　freedom　to　act　than　a　cat　or　dog　enjoys？　
4。　Discuss　the　five…factor　model　of　personality。　Aside　from　the　obvious　applications　in　the　
mental　health　industry；　ask　the　class　what　other　applications　they　see　for　this　model。　Have　
students　expand　on　their　perspective。　
5。　Of　the　various　approaches　to　personality　detailed　in　this　chapter；　which　do　students　find　to　
be　most　satisfying　in　a　personal　sense？　Is　this　an　emotional　or　an　intellectual　choice？　
Discuss　the　implications。　
6。　We　all　assume　somewhat　different　roles　and　personalities　in　different　social　situations。　If　
you　could　be　only　one　of　these　“people；”　which　would　you　choose？　How　would　other　
people’s　reactions　to　you　be　changed　in　those　situations　where　you　now　displayed　a　new　
set　of　characteristics？　
7。　A　surprisingly　large　percentage　of　college　students　（about　50　percent）　describe　themselves　
as　“shy。”　Can　such　a　self…imposed　label　be　changed　by　the　time　one　reaches　college　age？　If　
so；　how？　How　does　someone　e　to　be　“shy”？　What　is　the　difference　between　being　a　
“shy　person”　and　being　“situationally　shy”？　
8。　You　might　want　to　discuss　Judith　Rich　Harris’s　book；　The　Nurture　Assumption：　Why　Children　
Turn　Out　the　Way　They　Do；　Parents　Matter　Less　than　You　Think　and　Peers　Matter　More；　in　which　
she　argues　that　peers；　not　parents；　play　the　most　important　role　in　shaping　a　child’s　
personality。　As　the　text　explains；　there　is　abundant　research　that　consistently　indicates　that　
parents　play　a　large；　if　not　critical；　role　in　shaping　a　child’s　personality。　As　the　text　
suggests；　if　parents　had　little　or　no　impact；　then　there　would　be　no　observable　birth　order　
effects。　Additionally；　Harris　ignores　the　fact　that　since　children　tend　to　grow　up　in　
neighborhoods　where　many　families　have　similar　values　and　behavior　standards；　they　are　
surrounded　by　other　children　with　fairly　similar　values　to　their　own。　Children　may　also　
self…select　friends　based　on　how　similar　their　attitudes　and　interests　are　to　their　own。　While　
peers　clearly　have　some　effect；　especially　during　the　middle　school　and　high　school　years；　
there　is　no　evidence　that　the　effects　of　peer　influence　override　parental　influences　in　the　
long　run　to　the　degree　argued　by　Harris。　How　do　students　feel　about　this？　Do　their　own　
experiences　confirm　or　deny　Harris’s　theories？　Why　or　why　not？　

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SUPPLEMENTAL　LECTURE　MATERIAL　

Harry　Stack　Sullivan　and　the　Interpersonal　Relations　Theory　of　
Personality　

The　founder　of　this　position；　Harry　Stack　Sullivan；　was　an　interesting　individual；　and　his　areas　of　
concentration　were：　

。　The　dynamics　of　personality　
。　The　dynamics　and　treatment　of　schizophrenia　（he　coined　the　term　and　concept　of　the　
“schizophrenic　mother”）　
Sullivan　posited　his　theory　of　personality　within　the　context　of　developmental　psychology；　feeling　
that　to　be　the　only　viable　avenue　for　his　perspective。　Sullivan　felt　that　it　was　“pletely　
preposterous’　to　assume　that　human　behavior　was　determined　solely　by　instinct；　feeling　instead　
that　human　nature　was　so　pliable　and　adaptable　that　even　“the　most　fantastic　social　rules　and　
regulations　＇could＇　be　lived　up　to；　if　they　were　properly　inculcated　in　the　young。”　Sullivan　
concluded　that　personality　was　shaped　primarily　by　social　forces；　with　the　lengthy　period　of　
dependence　in　childhood　making　the　child　particularly　susceptible　to　the　influence　of　others。　He　
proposed　an　incredib