the sequel of appomattox-第17章

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being　〃generally　of　a　class　of　fanatics　without　character　or　responsibility。〃

The　chief　activities　of　the　Bureau　included　the　following　five　branches：　relief　work　for　both　races；　the　regulation　of　Negro　labor；　the　administration　of　justice　in　cases　concerning　Negroes；　the　management　of　abandoned　and　confiscated　property；　and　the　support　of　schools　for　the　Negroes。

The　relief　work　which　was　carried　on　for　more　than　four　years　consisted　of　caring　for　sick　Negroes　who　were　within　reach　of　the　hospitals；　furnishing　food　and　sometimes　clothing　and　shelter　to　destitute　blacks　and　whites；　and　transporting　refugees　of　both　races　back　to　their　homes。　Nearly　a　hundred　hospitals　and　clinics　were　established；　and　half　a　million　patients　were　treated。　This　work　was　greatly　needed；　especially　for　the　old　and　the　infirm；　and　it　was　well　done。　The　transportation　of　refugees　did　not　reach　large　proportions；　and　after　1866　it　was　entangled　in　politics。　But　the　issue　of　supplies　in　huge　quantities　brought　much　needed　relief　though　at　the　same　time　a　certain　amount　of　demoralization。　The　Bureau　claimed　little　credit；　and　is　usually　given　none；　for　keeping　alive　during　the　fall　and　winter　of　1865…1866　thousands　of　destitute　whites。　Yet　more　than　a　third　of　the　food　issued　was　to　whites；　and　without　it　many　would　have　starved。　Numerous　Confederate　soldiers　on　the　way　home　after　the　surrender　were　fed　by　the　Bureau；　and　in　the　destitute　white　districts　a　great　deal　of　suffering　was　relieved　and　prevented　by　its　operations。　The　Negroes；　dwelling　for　the　most　part　in　regions　where　labor　was　in　demand；　needed　relief　for　a　shorter　time；　but　they　were　attracted　in　numbers　to　the　towns　by　free　food；　and　it　was　difficult　to　get　them　back　to　work。　The　political　value　of　the　free　food　issues　was　not　generally　recognized　until　later　in　1866　and　in　1867。

During　the　first　year　of　the　Bureau　an　important　duty　of　the　agents　was　the　supervision　of　Negro　labor　and　the　fixing　of　wages。　Both　officials　and　planters　generally　demanded　that　contracts　be　written；　approved；　and　filed　in　the　office　of　the　Bureau。　They　thought　that　the　Negroes　would　work　better　if　they　were　thus　bound　by　contracts。　The　agents　usually　required　that　the　agreements　between　employer　and　laborer　cover　such　points　as　the　nature　of　the　work；　the　hours；　food　and　clothes；　medical　attendance；　shelter；　and　wages。　To　make　wages　secure；　the　laborer　was　given　a　lien　on　the　crop；　to　secure　the　planter　from　loss；　unpaid　wages　might　be　forfeited　if　the　laborer　failed　to　keep　his　part　of　the　contract。　When　it　dawned　upon　the　Bureau　authorities　that　other　systems　of　labor　had　been　or　might　be　developed　in　the　South；　they　permitted　arrangements　for　the　various　forms　of　cash　and　share　renting。　But　it　was　everywhere　forbidden　to　place　the　Negroes　under　〃overseers〃　or　to　subject　them　to　〃unwilling　apprenticeship〃　and　〃compulsory　working　out　of　debts。〃　The　written　contract　system　for　laborers　did　not　work　out　successfully。　The　Negroes　at　first　were　expecting　quite　other　fruits　of　freedom。　One　Mississippi　Negro　voiced　what　was　doubtless　the　opinion　of　many　when　he　declared　that　he　〃considered　no　man　free　who　had　to　work　for　a　living。〃　Few　Negroes　would　contract　for　more　than　three　months　and　none　for　a　period　beyond　January　1；　1866；　when　they　expected　a　division　of　lands　among　the　ex…slaves。　In　spite　of　the　regulations；　most　worked　on　oral　agreements。　In　1866　nearly　all　employers　threw　overboard　the　written　contract　system　for　labor　and　permitted　oral　agreements。　Some　states　had　passed　stringent　laws　for　the　enforcing　of　contracts；　but　in　Alabama；　Governor　Patton　vetoed　such　legislation　on　the　ground　that　it　was　not　needed。　General　Swayne；　the　Bureau　chief　for　the　state；　endorsed　the　Governor's　action　and　stated　that　the　Negro　was　protected　by　his　freedom　to　leave　when　mistreated；　and　the　planter；　by　the　need　on　the　part　of　the　Negro　for　food　and　shelter。　Negroes；　he　said；　were　afraid　of　contracts　and；　besides；　contracts　led　to　litigation。

In　order　to　safeguard　the　civil　rights　of　the　Negroes；　the　Bureau　was　given　authority　to　establish　courts　of　its　own　and　to　supervise　the　action　of　state　courts　in　cases　to　which　freedmen　were　parties。　The　majority　of　the　assistant　commissioners　made　no　attempt　to　let　the　state　courts　handle　Negro　cases　but　were　accustomed　to　bring　all　such　cases　before　the　Bureau　or　the　provost　courts　of　the　army。　In　Alabama；　quite　early；　and　later　in　North　Carolina；　Mississippi；　and　Georgia；　the　wiser　assistant　commissioners　arranged　for　the　state　courts　to　handle　freedmen's　cases　with　the　understanding　that　discriminating　laws　were　to　be　suspended。　General　Swayne　in　so　doing　declared　that　he　was　〃unwilling　to　establish　throughout　Alabama　courts　conducted　by　persons　foreign　to　her　citizenship　and　strangers　to　her　laws。〃　The　Bureau　courts　were　informal　affairs；　consisting　usually　of　one　or　two　administrative　officers。　There　were　no　jury；　no　appeal　beyond　the　assistant　commissioner；　no　rules　of　procedure；　and　no　accepted　body　of　law。　In　state　courts　accepted　by　the　Bureau；　the　proceedings　in　Negro　cases　were　conducted　in　the　same　manner　as　for　the　whites。

The　educational　work　of　the　Bureau　was　at　first　confined　to　cooperation　with　such　Northern　religious　and　benevolent　societies　as　were　organizing　schools　and　churches　for　the　Negroes。　After　the　first　year；　the　Bureau　extended　financial　aid　and　undertook　a　system　of　supervision　over　Negro　schools。　The　teachers　employed　were　Northern　whites　and　Negroes　in　about　equal　numbers。　Confiscated　Confederate　property　was　devoted　to　Negro　education；　and　in　several　states　the　assistant　commissioners　collected　fees　and　percentages　of　the　Negroes'　wages　for　the　benefit　of　the　schools。　In　addition　the　Bureau　expended　about　six　million　dollars。

The　intense　dislike　which　the　Southern　whites　manifested　for　the　Freedmen's　Bureau　was　due　in　general　to　their　resentment　of　outside　control　of　domestic　affairs　and　in　particular　to　unavoidable　difficulties　inherent　in　the　situation。　Among　the　concrete　causes　of　Southern　hostility　was　the　attitude　of　some　of　the　higher　officials　and　many　of　the　lower　ones　toward　the　white　people。　They　assumed　that　the　whites　were　unwilling　to　accord　fair　treatment　to　the　blacks　in　the　matter　of　wages；　schools；　and　justice。　An　official　in　Louisiana　declared　that　the　whites　would　exterminate　the　Negroes　if　the　Bureau　were　removed。　A　few　months　later　General　Fullerton　in　the　same　State　reported　that　trouble　was　caused　by　those　agents　who　noisily　demanded　special　privileges　for　the　Negro　but　who　objected　to　any　penalties　for　his　lawlessness　and　made　of　the　Negroes　a　pampered　class。　General　Tillson　in　Georgia　predicted　the　extinction　of　the　〃old　time　Southerner　with　his　hate；　cruelty；　and　malice。〃　General　Fisk　declared　that　〃there　are　some　of　the　meanest；　unsubjugated　and　unreconstructed　rascally　revolutionists　in　Kentucky　that　curse　the　soil　of　the　country　。　。　。　a　more　select　number　of　vindictive；　pro…slavery；　rebellious　legislators　cannot　be　found　than　a　majority　of　the　Kentucky　legislature。〃　There　was　a　disposition　to　lecture　the　whites　about　their　sins　in　regard　to　slavery　and　to　point　out　to　them　how　far　in　their　general　ignorance　and　backwardness　they　fell　short　of　enlightened　people。

The　Bureau　courts　were　frequently　conducted　in　an　〃illegal　and　oppressive　manner；〃　with　〃decided　partiality　for　the　colored　people；　without　regard　to　justice。〃　For　this　reason　they　were　suspended　for　a　time　in　Louisiana　and　Georgia　by　General　Steedman　and　General　Fullerton；　and　cases　were　then　sent　before　military　courts。　Men　of　the　highest　character　were　dragged　before　the　Bureau　tribunals　upon　frivolous　complaints；　were　lectured；　abused；　ridiculed；　and　arbitrarily　fined　or　otherwise　punished。　The　jurisdiction　of　the　Bureau　courts　weakened　the　civil　courts　and　their　frequent　interference　in　trivial　matters　was　not　conducive　to　a　return　to　normal　conditions。

The　inferior　agents；　not　sufficiently　under　the　control　of　their　superiors；　were　responsible　for　a　great　deal　of　this　bad　feeling。　Many　of　them　held　radical　opinions　as　to　the　relations　of　the　races；　and　inculcated　these　views　in　their　courts；　in　the　schools；　and　in　the　new　Negro　churches