political economy-第6章
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increased its importance。 At first； every one procured what he himself intended to consume； but when each had come to work for all； the production of all must be consumed by all； and each； in what he produced； must have an eye to the final demand of the society； for which he destined the fruit of his labour。 This demand； though not well ascertained by him； was limited in quantity。 for； in order to continue his expenditure； every one must confine it by certain restrictions； and the sum of those private expenditures constituted that of the society。 The distinction between capital and income； which in the Solitary's case was still confused； became essential in society。 The social man was under the necessity of adjusting his consumption to his income； and the society； of which he formed part； were compelled to observe the same rule； without incurring ruin； they could not annually consume more than their annual income； leaving their capital untouched。 All that they produced； however； was destined for consumption； and if their annual products； when carried to the destined market； found no purchaser； reproduction was arrested； and the nation ruined as before。 We shall attempt to explain this double relation； at once so essential and so delicate； by showing； on the one hand； how income springs from capital； on the other； how what is income for one may be capital for a second。 To the Solitary； every kind of wealth was a provision made beforehand against the moment of necessity； yet still in this provision he distinguished two things … the part which it suited his economy to keep in reserve for immediate； or nearly immediate use； and the part which he would not need before the time when he might obtain it by a new production。 One portion of his corn was to support him till the next harvest； another portion； set apart for seed； was to bring forth its fruit the following year。 The formation of society； the introduction of exchange； allowed him almost indefinitely to multiply this seed； … this fruit…bearing portion of accumulated wealth。 It is what we name capital。 The ground and his animals were all that man could force to work in concert with him； but； in society； the rich man could force the poor to work in concert with him。 After having set apart what corn was necessary till the next harvest； it suited him to employ the remaining surplus of corn in feeding other men； that they might cultivate the ground and make fresh corn for him： that they might spin and weave his hemps and wools； that； in a word； they might take out of his hands the commodity ready for being consumed； and at the expiration of a certain period； return him another commodity； of a greater value； likewise destined for consumption。 Wages were the price at which the rich man obtained the poor man's labour in exchange。 The division of labour had produced the distinction of ranks。 The person who had limited his efforts to perform only one very simple operation in a manufacture； had made himself dependent on whoever chose to employ him。 He no longer produced a complete work； but merely the part of a work； in which he required not only the cooperation of other workmen； but also raw materials； proper implements； and a trader to undertake the exchange of the article which he had contributed to finish。 Whenever he bargained with a master…workman for the exchange of labour against subsistence； the condition he stood in was always disadvantageous； since his need of subsistence and his inability to procure it of himself； were far greater than the master's need of labour； and therefore he almost constantly narrowed his demand to bare necessaries； without which the stipulated labour could not have proceeded； whilst the master alone profited from the increase of productive power brought about by the division of labour。 The master； who hired workmen； was situated； in all points； exactly as the husbandman who sows the ground。 The wages paid to his workmen were a kind of seed which he entrusted to them； and expected in a given time to bring forth fruit。 Like the husbandman； he did not sow all his productive wealth； a part of it had been devoted to such buildings； or machines； or implements； as make labour more easy and productive； just in the way that a part of the husbandman's wealth was devoted to permanent works； destined to render the ground more fertile。 It is thus that we see the different kinds of wealth springing up and separating； whilst each exerts a different influence on its own reproduction。 The funds of consumption； such as domestic necessaries； do not any longer produce fruit； after each has secured them for his own use； fixed capital； such as improvement of the soil； canals of irrigation； and machinery； during the progress of its own slow consumption； co…operates with labour of which it augments the products； and； lastly； circulating capital； such as seed； wages； and raw materials； destined to be wrought； is consumed annually； or even more rapidly； in order to be again re…produced。 It is essentially important to remark； that those three kinds of wealth are all equally advancing towards consumption。 But the first when consumed is absolutely destroyed； for societies； as for individuals； it is merely an expense： whereas the second and third； after being consumed； are re…produced under a new form； and for societies； as for individuals； the consumption of them is a putting out to profit； or the circulation of capitals。 We shall better understand this movement of wealth； which； perhaps； it is difficult to follow； by fixing our observation on a single family engaged in the simplest of all speculations。 A solitary farmer has reaped a hundred bags of corn； and is destitute of any market to which he can carry it。 At all events； this corn must be consumed within the year； otherwise it will be worth nothing to the farmer。 But he and his family may require only thirty bags of it； this is his expense： another thirty may be employed to support workmen engaged in felling the forests； or draining the marshes of the neighbourhood； to put them under culture； this will be converting thirty bags into fixed capital： and； finally； the remaining forty bags may be sown； and formed into a circulating capital； in place of the twenty bags sown the preceding year。 The hundred are thus consumed； but seventy of them are put out to profit； they will reappear partly at the next harvest； partly at those which follow。 By this means； in consuming he will have saved。 Yet the limits of such an operation are easily discerned。 If； this year； out of the hundred bags which he reaped； he could get no more than sixty eaten； who will eat the two hundred bags produced next year by the augmentation of his seed？* Resuming these three sorts of wealth； which； as we have seen； become distinct in a private family； let us now consider each sort with regard to the whole nation； and see how the national revenue may arise from this division。 As the farmer required a primitive quantity of labour to be expended in cutting down the forests； and draining the marshes which he meant to cultivate； so； for every kind of enterprise； there is required a primitive quantity of labour to facilitate and augment the circulating capital。 The ore cannot be obtained till the mine is opened； canals must be dug； machinery and mills must be constructed； before they can be used； manufactories must be built； and looms set up； before the wool； the hemp； or the silk can be weaved。 This first advance is always accomplished by labour； this labour is always represented by wages； and these wages are always exchanged for necessaries of life； which the workmen consume in executing their task。 Hence what we have called fixed capital； is a part of the annual consumption； transformed into durable establishments； calculated to increase the productive power of future labour。 Such establishments themselves grow old； decay； and are slowly consumed in their turn； after having long contributed to augment the annual production。 As the farmer required seed； which； after being committed to the earth； was returned fivefold in harvest； so likewise； every undertaker of useful labour requires raw materials to work upon； and wages for his workmen； e
