philosophy of right-第53章

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idea　and　consciousness　of　the　validity　of　the　laws；　its　danger　to　civil　society　is　a　determinant　of　the
magnitude　of　a　crime；　or　even　one　of　its　qualitative　characteristics。　

Now　this　quality　or　magnitude　varies　with　the　state　of　civil　society；　and　this　is　the　justification　for
sometimes　attaching　the　penalty　of　death　to　a　theft　of　a　few　pence　or　a　turnip；　and　at　other　times　a
light　penalty　to　a　theft　of　a　hundred　or　more　times　that　amount。　If　we　consider　its　danger　to
society；　this　seems　at　first　sight　to　aggravate　the　crime；　but　in　fact　it　is　just　this　which　has　been　the
prime　cause　of　the　mitigation　of　its　punishment。　A　penal　code；　then；　is　primarily　the　child　of　its　age
and　the　state　of　civil　society　at　the　time。　

Addition：　It　seems　to　be　a　contradiction　that　a　crime　committed　in　society　appears　more
heinous　and　yet　is　punished　more　leniently。　But　while　it　would　be　impossible　for　society　to　leave　a
crime　unpunished；　since　that　would　be　to　posit　it　as　right；　still　since　society　is　sure　of　itself；　a　crime
must　always　be　something　idiosyncratic　in　comparison；　something　unstable　and　exceptional。　The
very　stability　of　society　gives　a　crime　the　status　of　something　purely　subjective　which　seems　to　be
the　product　rather　of　natural　impulse　than　of　a　prudent　will。　In　this　light；　crime　acquires　a　milder
status；　and　for　this　reason　its　punishment　too　becomes　milder。　If　society　is　still　internally　weak；　then
an　example　must　be　made　by　inflicting　punishments；　since　punishment　is　itself　an　example　over
against　the　example　of　crime。　But　in　a　society　which　is　internally　strong；　the　commission　of　crime　is
something　so　feeble　that　its　annulment　must　be　commensurable　with　its　feebleness。　Harsh
punishments；　therefore；　are　not　unjust　in　and　by　themselves；　they　are　related　to　contemporary
conditions。　A　criminal　code　cannot　hold　good　for　all　time；　and　crimes　are　only　shows　of　reality
which　may　draw　on　themselves　a　greater　or　lesser　degree　of　disavowal。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　（c）　The　Court　of　Justice
　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　219。

By　taking　the　form　of　law；　right　steps　into　a　determinate　mode　of　being。　It　is　then
something　on　its　own　account；　and　in　contrast　with　particular　willing　and　opining
of　the　right；　it　is　self…subsistent　and　has　to　vindicate　itself　as　something　universal。；
This　is　achieved　by　recognising　it　and　making　it　actual　in　a　particular　case　without
the　subjective　feeling　of　private　interest；　and　this　is　the　business　of　a　public
authority　—　the　court　of　justice。　

Remark：　The　historical　origin　of　the　judge　and　his　court　may　have　had　the　form　of　a　patriarch’s
gift　to　his　people　or　of　force　or　free　choice；　but　this　makes　no　difference　to　the　concept　of　the
thing。　To　regard　the　introduction　of　a　legal　system　as　no　more　than　an　optional　act　of　grace　or
favour　on　the　part　of　monarchs　and　governments　（as　Herr　von　Haller　does　in　his　Restauration　der
Staatswissenschaft）　is　a　piece　of　the　mere　thoughtlessness　which　has　no　inkling　of　the　point　at
issue　in　a　discussion　of　law　and　the　state。　The　point　is　that　legal　and　political　institutions　are　rational
in　principle　and　therefore　absolutely　necessary；　and　the　question　of　the　form　in　which　they　arose　or
were　introduced　is　entirely　irrelevant　to　a　consideration　of　their　rational　basis。　

At　the　other　extreme　from　Herr　von　Haller’s　point　of　view　is　the　barbarous　nation　that　the
administration　of　justice　is　now；　as　it　was　in　the　days　when　might　was　right；　an　improper　exercise
of　force；　a　suppression　of　freedom；　and　a　despotism。　The　administration　of　justice　must　be
regarded　as　the　fulfilment　of　a　duty　by　the　public　authority；　no　less　than　as　the　exercise　of　a　right；
and　so　far　as　it　is　a　right；　it　does　not　depend　upon　an　optional　delegation　to　one　authority　by　the
individual　members　of　society。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　220。

When　the　right　against　crime　has　the　form　of　revenge　（see　§　102）；　it　is　only　right
implicit；　not　right　in　the　form　of　right；　i。e。　no　act　of　revenge　is　justified。　Instead　of
the　injured　party；　the　injured　universal　now　comes　on　the　scene；　and　this　has　its
proper　actuality　in　the　court　of　law。　It　takes　over　the　pursuit　and　the　avenging　of
crime；　and　this　pursuit　consequently　ceases　to　be　the　subjective　and　contingent
retribution　of　revenge　and　is　transformed　into　the　genuine　reconciliation　of　right
with　itself；　i。e。　into　punishment。　Objectively；　this　is　the　reconciliation　of　the　law
with　itself；　by　the　annulment　of　the　crime；　the　law　is　restored　and　its　authority　is
thereby　actualised。　Subjectively；　it　is　the　reconciliation　of　the　criminal　with
himself；　i。e。　with　the　law　known　by　him　as　his　own　and　as　valid　for　him　and　his
protection；　when　this　law　is　executed　upon　him；　he　himself　finds　in　this　process
the　satisfaction　of　justice　and　nothing　save　his　own　act。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　221。

A　member　of　civil　society　has　the　right　in　judicio　stare　and；　correspondingly；　the
duty　of　acknowledging　the　jurisdiction　of　the　court　and　accepting　its　decision　as
final　when　his　own　rights　are　in　dispute。　

Addition：　Since　any　individual　has　the　right　in　judicio　stare；　he　must　also　know　what　the　law　is
or　otherwise　this　privilege　would　be　useless　to　him。　But　it　is　also　his　duty　to　stand　his　trial。　Under
the　feudal　system；　the　nobles　often　refused　to　stand　their　trial。　They　defied　the　court　and　alleged
that　the　court　was　wrong　to　demand　their　appearance。　Feudal　conditions；　however；　contravened
the　very　idea　of　a　court。　Nowadays　monarchs　have　to　recognise　the　jurisdiction　of　the　court　in
their　private　affairs；　and　in　free　states　they　commonly　lose　their　case。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　222。

In　court　the　specific　character　which　rightness　acquires　is　that　it　must　be
demonstrable。　When　parties　go　to　law；　they　are　put　in　the　position　of　having　to
make　good　their　evidence　and　their　claims　and　to　make　the　judge　acquainted　with
the　facts。　These　steps　in　a　legal　process　are　themselves　rights；　and　their　course
must　therefore　be　fixed　by　law。　They　also　constitute　an　essential　part　of
jurisprudence。　

Addition：　A　man　may　be　indignant　if　a　right　which　he　knows　he　has　is　refused　him　because　he
cannot　prove　it。　But　if　I　have　a　right；　it　must　at　the　same　time　be　a　right　posited　in　law。　I　must　be
able　to　explain　and　prove　it；　and　its　validity　can　only　be　recognised　in　society　if　its　rightness　in
principle　is　also　made　a　posited　rightness　in　law。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　223。

These　steps　in　a　legal　process　are　subdivided　continually　within　no　fixed　limits
into　more　and　more　actions；　each　being　distinct　in　itself　and　a　right。　Hence　a　legal
process；　in；　itself　in　any　case　a　means；　now　begins　to　be　something　external　to　its
end　and　contrasted　with　it。　This　long　course　of　formalities　is　a　right　of　the　parties
at　law　and　they　have　the　right　to　traverse　it　from　beginning　to　end。　Still；　it　may　be
turned　into　an　evil；　and　even　an　instrument　of　wrong；　and　for　this　reason　it　is　by
law　made　the　duty　of　the　parties　to　submit　themselves　to　the　simple　process　of
arbitration　（before　a　tribunal　of　arbitrators）　and　to　the　attempt　to　reconcile　their
differences　out　of　court；　in　order　that　they　—　and　right　itself；　as　the　substance　of
the　thing　and　so　the　thing　really　at　issue　may　be　protected　against　legal　processes
and　their　misuse。　

Remark：　Equity　involves　a　departure　from　formal　rights　owing　to　moral　or　other　considerations
and　is　concerned　primarily　with　the　content　of　the　lawsuit。　A　court　of　equity；　however；　comes　to
mean　a　court　which　decides　in　a　single　case　without　insisting　on　the　formalities　of　a　legal　process
or；　in　particular；　on　the　objective　evidence　which　the　letter　of　the　law　may　require。　Further；　it
decides　on　the　merits　of　the　single　case　as　a　unique　one；　not　with　a　view　to　disposing　of　it　in　such　a
way　as　to　create　a　binding　legal　precedent　for　the　future。　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　§　224。

Amongst　the　rights　of　the　subjective　consciousness　are　not　only　the　publication　of
the　laws　（see　§　215）　but　also　the　possibility　of　ascertaining　the　actualisation　of　the
law　in　a　particular　case　（the　course　of　the　proceedings；　the　le