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the evolution of modern medicine(�峇�匳勞議處延)-及47嫗

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enormous       importance     of  experimental      science。   He    looked    very   coldly 

upon     Harvey's     work。    It  was   a  philosopher      of  another    kidney�察   �Rene 

Descartes�察�who did more than anyone else to help men to realize the value 

of   the   better   way   which   Harvey   had   pointed   out。  That   the   beginning   of 

wisdom was in doubt�察�not in authority�察�was a novel doctrine in the world�察�

but Descartes was no armchair philosopher�察�and his strong advocacy and 

practice of experimentation had a profound influence in directing men to 

;la nouvelle methode。; He brought the human body�察�the earthly machine�察�

as he calls it�察�into the sphere of mechanics and physics�察�and he wrote the 

first   text´book    of  physiology�察     �De   l'Homme。;      Locke�察   �too�察  �became     the 

spokesman   of   the   new   questioning   spirit�察      �and   before   the   close   of   the 

seventeenth century�察�experimental research became all the mode。 Richard 

Lower�察  �Hooke   and   Hales   were   probably   more   influenced   by   Descartes 

than    by   Harvey�察   �and   they   made    notable   contributions     to  experimental 

physiology      in  England。     Borelli�察  �author    of  the   famous    work    on   ;The 

Motion of Animals; ��Rome�察�1680´1681���察�brought to the study of the action 

of muscles a profound knowledge of physics and mathematics and really 

founded the mechanical�察�or iatromechanical school。 The literature and the 

language of medicine became that of physics and mechanics�此�wheels and 

pulleys�察�wedges�察�levers�察�screws�察�cords�察�canals。 cisterns�察�sieves and strainers�察�

with angles�察�cylinders�察�celerity�察�percussion and resistance�察�were among the 

words that now came into use in medical literature。 Withington quotes a 

good example in a description by Pitcairne�察�the Scot who was professor of 

medicine   at   Leyden   at   the   end   of   the   seventeenth   century。   ;Life   is   the 

circulation of the blood。 Health is its free and painless circulation。 Disease 

is   an   abnormal   motion   of   the   blood�察  �either   general   or   local。   Like   the 

English school generally�察�he is far more exclusively mechanical than are 

the Italians�察�and will hear nothing of ferments or acids�察�even in digestion。 

This�察�he declares�察�is a purely mechanical process due to heat and pressure�察�

the wonderful effects of which may be seen in Papin's recently invented 

'digester。' That   the   stomach   is   fully  able   to   comminute   the   food   may   be 

proved   by   the   following   calculation。   Borelli   estimates   the   power   of   the 

flexors   of   the   thumb   at   3720   pounds�察  �their   average   weight   being   122 

grains。 Now�察�the average weight of the stomach is eight ounces�察�therefore 



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it can develop a force of 117��088 pounds�察�and this may be further assisted 

by the diaphragm and abdominal muscles the power of which�察�estimated in 

the  same   way�察  �equals   461��219   pounds� �Well   may   Pitcairne   add   that   this 

force   is   not   inferior   to   that   of   any   millstone。;��36�А  �Paracelsus   gave   an 

extraordinary   stimulus   to   the   study   of   chemistry   and   more   than   anyone 

else   he   put   the   old   alchemy   on   modern   lines。   I   have   already  quoted   his 

sane   remark   that   its   chief   service   is   in   seeking   remedies。   But   there   is 

another side to this question。 If�察�as seems fairly certain�察�the Basil Valentine 

whose writings were supposed to have inspired Paracelsus was a hoax and 

his works were made up in great part from the writings of Paracelsus�察�then 

to our medical Luther�察�and not to the mythical Benedictine monk�察�must be 

attributed a great revival in the search for the Philosopher's Stone�察�for the 

Elixir of Life�察�for a universal medicine�察�for the perpetuum mobile and for 

an   aurum   potabile。��37�А  �I   reproduce�察  �almost   at   random�察  �a   page   from   the 

fifth and last part of the last will and testament of Basil Valentine ��London�察�

1657���察�from which you may judge the chemical spirit of the time。 

     ��36�А  �Withington�此  �Medical   History   from   the   Earliest   Times�察  �London�察�

1891�察�Scientific Press�察�p。 317。 

     ��37�А   �See   Professor    Stillman    on   the   Basil   Valentine    hoax�察  �Popular 

Science Monthly�察�New York�察�1919�察�LXXXI�察�591´600。 

       Out of the mystic doctrines of Paracelsus arose the famous ;Brothers 

of   the   Rosy    Cross。;    ;The    brotherhood     was    possessed     of  the   deepest 

knowledge and science�察�the transmutation of metals�察�the perpetuum mobile 

and the universal medicine were among their secrets�察�they were free from 

sickness     and   suffering    during    their  lifetime�察  �though    subject    finally  to 

death。;��38�А�

     ��38�А�Ferguson�此�Bibliotheca Chemica�察�Vol。 II�察�p。 290。 For an account of 

Fludd and the English Rosicrucians see Craven's Life of Fludd�察�Kirkwall�察�

1902。 

       A school of a more rational kind followed directly upon the work of 

Paracelsus�察�in   which the   first man   of any  importance was Van   Helmont。 

The Paracelsian Archeus was the presiding spirit in living creatures�察�and 

worked   through   special   local   ferments�察  �by   which        the   functions   of   the 

organs are controlled。 Disease of any part represents a strike on the part of 



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the local Archeus�察�who refuses to work。 Though full of fanciful ideas�察�Van 

Helmont had the experimental spirit and was the first chemist to discover 

the diversity of gases。 Like his teacher�察�he was in revolt against the faculty�察�

and he has bitter things to say of physicians。 He got into trouble with the 

Church about the magnetic cure of wounds�察�as no fewer than twenty´seven 

propositions      incompatible      with   the   Catholic    faith   were    found    in  his 

pamphlet   ��Ferguson��。   The   Philosophus   per   ignem�察  �Toparcha   in   Merode�察�

Royenborch�察�as he is styled in certain of his writings�察�is not an easy man to 

tackle。 I show the title´page of the ;Ortus Medicinae�察─�the collection of his 

works by his son。 As with the pages of Paracelsus�察�there are many gems to 

be dug out。 The counterblast against bleeding was a useful protest�察�and to 

deny in toto its utility in fever required courage a quality never lacking 

in the Father of Modern Chemistry�察�as he has been called。 

     A   man   of   a   very   different   type�察  �a   learned   academic�察  �a   professor   of 

European renown�察�was Daniel Sennert of Wittenberg�察�the first to introduce 

the systematic teaching of chemistry into the curriculum�察�and who tried to 

harmonize the Galenists and Paracelsians。 Franciscus Sylvius�察�a disciple of 

Van     Helmont�察    �established     the  first  chemical     laboratory    in   Europe    at 

Leyden�察�and to him is due the introduction of modern clinical teaching。 In 

1664   he   writes�此   �I   have   led   my   pupils   by   the   hand   to   medical   practice�察�

using   a   method   unknown   at   Leyden�察  �or   perhaps   elsewhere�察  �i。e。�察  �taking 

them   daily   to   visit   the   sick   at   the   public   hospital。   There   I   have   put   the 

symptoms of disease before their eyes�察�have let them hear the complaints 

of the patients�察�and have asked them their opinions as to the causes and 

rational treatment of each case�察�and the reasons for those opinions。 Then I 

have given my own judgment on every point。 Together with me they have 

seen the happy results of treatment when God has granted to our cares a 

restoration of health�察�or they have assisted in examining the body when the 

patient has paid the inevitable tribute to death。;��39�А�

     ��39�А  �Withington�此  �Medical   History   from   the   Earlies

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