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what con´ cerns the relations between nations。 The mass of the population 

of a country can be led to love or hate any other country at the will of the 

newspaper proprietors�察�which is often�察�directly or indirectly�察�influenced by 



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the will of the great financiers。 So long as enmity between England and 

Russia was desired�察�our newspapers were full of the cruel treatment meted 

out to Russian political prisoners�察�the oppression of Finland and Russian 

Poland�察  �and   other   such   topics。   As   soon   as   our   foreign   policy   changed�察�

these   items   disappeared   from   the   more   important   newspapers�察  �and   we 

heard instead of the misdeeds of Germany。 Most men are not sufficiently 

critical to be on their guard against such influences�察�and until they are�察�the 

power of the Press will remain。 

     Besides these two influences of capitalism in promoting war�察�there is 

another�察  �much   less   emphasized   by   the   critics   of   capitalism�察  �but   by   no 

means less important�此�I mean the pugnacity which tends to be developed 

in   men   who   have   the   habit   of   command。   So   long   as   capitalist   society 

persists�察  �an   undue   measure   of   power   will   be   in   the   hands   of   those   who 

have acquired wealth and influence through a great position in industry or 

finance。   Such   men   are   in   the   habit�察  �in   private   life�察  �of   finding   their   will 

seldom questioned�察  �they  are surrounded by  obsequious satellites   and   are 

not   infrequently   engaged   in   conflicts   with   Trade   Unions。   Among   their 

friends and acquaintances are included those who hold high positions   in 

government or administration�察�and these men equally are liable to become 

autocratic through the habit of giving orders。 It used   to be customary  to 

speak of the ``governing classes��'' but nominal democracy has caused this 

phrase to go out of fashion。 Nevertheless�察�it still retains much truth�察�there 

are still in any capitalist community those who command and those who as 

a rule obey。 The outlook of these two classes is very different�察�though in a 

modern   society   there   is   a   continuous   gradation   from   the   extreme   of   the 

one   to   the   extreme   of   the   other。   The   man   who   is   accustomed   to   find 

submission to his will becomes indignant on the occasions when he finds 

opposition。   Instinctively   he   is   convinced   that   opposition   is   wicked   and 

must   be   crushed。   He   is   therefore   much   more   willing   than   the   average 

citizen to resort to war against his rivals。 Accordingly we find�察�though�察�of 

course�察  �with   very   notable   exceptions�察  �that   in   the   main   those   who   have 

most   power   are   most   warlike�察  �and   those   who   have   least   power   are   least 

disposed to hatred of foreign nations。 This is one of the evils inseparable 

from the concentration of power。 It will only be cured by the abolition of 



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capitalism if the new system is one which allows very much less power to 

single individuals。 It will not be cured by a system which substitutes the 

power   of   Ministers   or   officials   for   the   power   of   capitalists   This   is   one 

reason�察�additional to those mentioned in the preceding chapter�察�for desiring 

to see a diminution in the authority of the State。 

     Not   only   does   the   concentration   of   power   tend   to   cause   wars�察  �but�察�

equally�察    �wars    and   the   fear  of   them    bring   about    the   necessity    for   the 

concentration of power。 So long as the community is exposed to sudden 

dangers�察�the possibility of quick decision is absolutely necessary to self´ 

preservation。   The   cumbrous   machinery   of   deliberative   decisions   by   the 

people is impossible in a crisis�察�and therefore so long as crises are likely to 

occur�察    �it  is   impossible      to   abolish     the   almost     autocratic     power     of 

governments。 In this case�察�as in most others�察�each of two correlative evils 

tends to perpetuate the other。 The existence of men with the habit of power 

increases   the   risk   of   war�察  �and   the   risk   of   war   makes   it   impossible   to 

establish a system where no man possesses great power。 

     So   far   we   have   been   considering   what   is   true   in   the   contention   that 

capitalism causes   modern   wars。 It is time now  to   look at   the  other  side�察�

and to ask ourselves whether the abolition of capitalism would�察�by itself�察�

be sufficient to prevent war。 

     I   do   not   myself   believe   that   this   is   the   case。   The   outlook   of   both 

Socialists and Anarchists seems to me�察�in this respect as in some others�察�to 

be unduly divorced from the fundamental instincts of human nature。 There 

were wars   before  there was   capital´   ism�察 �and fighting   is   habitual   among 

animals。 The power of the Press in promoting war is entirely due to   the 

fact    that   it  is  able   to   appeal    to   certain    instincts。   Man     is  naturally 

competitive�察      �acquisitive�察   �and�察  �in   a  greater   or   less  degree�察   �pugnacious。 

When   the   Press   tells   him   that   so´and´so   is   his   enemy�察  �a   whole   set   of 

instincts   in him  responds to   the   suggestion。  It   is   natural   to   most   men   to 

suppose that they have enemies and to find a certain fulfillment of their 

nature   when      they   embark   upon       a   contest。   What   a   man   believes   upon 

grossly insufficient evidence is an index to his desiresdesires of which he 

himself is often unconscious。 If a man is offered a fact which goes against 

his    instincts�察  �he   will  scrutinize     it  closely�察  �and   unless    the  evidence      is 



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overwhelming�察  �he   will   refuse   to   believe   it。   If�察  �on   the   other   hand�察  �he   is 

offered something which affords a reason for acting in accordance with his 

instincts�察�he will accept it even on the slenderest evidence。 The origin of 

myths is explained in this way�察�and much of what is currently believed in 

international affairs is no better than myth。 Although capitalism affords in 

modern   society   the   channel   by   which   the   instinct   of   pugnacity   finds   its 

outlet�察�there is reason to fear that�察�if this channel were closed�察�some other 

would   be   found�察  �unless   education   and   environment   were   so   changed   as 

enormously   to   diminish   the   strength         of   the   competitive   instinct。   If   an 

economic reorganization can effect this it may pro´ vide a real safeguard 

against war�察�but if not�察�it is to be feared that the hopes of universal peace 

will prove delusive。 

     The     abolition    of  capitalism     might�察   �and   very   likely   would�察    �greatly 

diminish the incentives to war which are derived from the Press and from 

the   desire   of   finance   to   find   new   fields   for   investment   in   undeveloped 

countries�察�but those which are derived from the instinct of command and 

the    impatience     of   opposition     might    remain�察   �though     perhaps    in  a   less 

virulent   form   than   at   present。  A   democracy   which   has   power   is   almost 

always more bellicose than one which is excluded from its due share in the 

government。 The internationalism of Marx is based upon the assumption 

that   the   proletariat   everywhere   are   oppressed   by   the   ruling   classes。   The 

last words of the Communist Manifesto embody this idea 

       Let   the   ruling  

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