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material     causes    operating     upon    human      beings。    He   does    not   so  much 

advocate the Socialist revolution as predict it。 He holds�察�it is true�察�that it 

will be beneficent�察�but he is much more concerned to prove that it must 

inevitably come。 The same sense of necessity is visible in his exposition of 

the   evils   of   the   capitalist   system。   He   does   not   blame   capitalists   for   the 

cruelties of which he shows them to have been guilty�察�he merely points out 

that   they   are   under   an   inherent   necessity   to   behave   cruelly   so   long   as 

private ownership of land and capital continues。 But their tyranny will not 

last forever�察�for it generates the forces that must in the end overthrow it。 

     2。 The Law  of the   Concentration of   Capital。 Marx pointed out   that 

capitalist   undertakings   tend   to   grow   larger   and   larger。   He   foresaw   the 

substitution of trusts for free competition�察�and predicted that the number of 

capitalist enterprises must diminish as the magnitude of single enterprises 

increased。  He   supposed   that   this   process   must   involve   a  diminution�察 �not 

only   in   the   number   of   businesses�察  �but   also   in   the   number   of   capitalists。 

Indeed�察�he usually spoke as though each business were owned by a single 

man。 Accordingly�察�he expected that men would be continually driven from 

the    ranks   of   the  capitalists    into   those   of  the   proletariat�察   �and   that   the 

capitalists�察  �in   the   course   of   time�察  �would   grow   numerically   weaker   and 

weaker。      He    applied    this   principle    not    only   to   industry    but    also   to 

agriculture。 He expected to find the landowners growing fewer and fewer 

while their estates grew larger and larger。 This process was to make more 

and more glaring the evils and injustices of the capitalist system�察�and to 

stimulate more and more the forces of opposition。 

     3。 The Class War。Marx conceives the wage´ earner and the capitalist 

in a sharp antithesis。 He imagines that every man is�察�or must soon become�察�

wholly   the   one   or   wholly   the   other。   The   wage´   earner�察  �who   possesses 

nothing�察  �is   exploited   by   the   capitalists�察  �who   possess   everything。  As   the 



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capitalist system works itself out and its nature becomes   more clear�察�the 

opposition of bourgeoisie and proletariat becomes more and more marked。 

The two classes�察�since they have antagonistic interests�察�are forced into a 

class   war   which   generates   within   the  capitalist   regime   internal   forces   of 

disruption。   The   working   men   learn   gradually   to   combine   against   their 

exploiters�察  �first   locally�察  �then nationally�察  �and   at   last   internationally。  When 

they   have   learned     to   combine   internationally   they   must   be      victorious。 

They will then decree that all land and capital shall be owned in common�察�

exploitation will cease�察�the tyranny of the owners of wealth will no longer 

be possible�察  �there  will  no   longer  be any  division   of society  into   classes�察�

and all men will be free。 

     All these ideas are already contained in the ``Communist Manifesto��'' a 

work     of   the  most    amazing     vigor    and   force�察  �setting   forth   with   terse 

compression   the   titanic   forces   of   the     world�察  �their   epic   battle�察  �and   the 

inevitable     consummation。         This   work     is  of   such    importance      in  the 

development   of   Socialism  and   gives   such   an   admirable   statement   of   the 

doctrines set forth at greater length and with more pedantry in ``Capital��'' 

that    its  salient  passages     must    be   known     by   anyone     who    wishes     to 

understand      the   hold   which     Marxian     Socialism     has   acquired    over   the 

intellect and imagination of a large proportion of working´class leaders。 

     ``A spectre is haunting Europe��'' it begins�察 �`the spectre of Communism。 

All the Powers of old Europe have entered into a holy alliance to exorcise 

this spectrePope and Czar�察�Metternich and Guizot�察�French Radicals and 

German police´spies。 Where  is   the  party  in   opposition that has not been 

decried as communistic by its opponents in power�拭�Where the Opposition 

that has not hurled back the branding reproach of Communism against the 

more     advanced      opposition    parties�察  �as   well   as  against    its  re´actionary 

adversaries��'' 

     The   existence   of   a   class   war   is   nothing   new�此   �`The   history   of   all 

hitherto     existing   society    is  the   history    of  class   struggles。''   In   these 

struggles     the   fight   ``each    time   ended�察   �either   in   a  revolutionary      re´ 

constitution of society at large�察�or in the common ruin of the contending 

classes。'' 

     ``Our epoch�察�the epoch of the bourgeoisie 。 。 。 has simplified the class 



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antagonisms。 Society as a  whole is more and   more splitting up into two 

great   hostile   camps�察  �into   two   great   classes   directly   facing   each   other�此�

Bourgeoisie       and    Proletariat。''   Then    follows     a  history    of  the   fall  of 

feudalism�察 �leading   to   a  description   of   the  bourgeoisie   as   a   revolutionary 

force。    ``The    bourgeoisie�察   �historically�察   �has  played    a  most    revolutionary 

part。'' ``For exploitation�察�veiled by religious and political illusions�察�it has 

substituted naked�察�shameless�察�direct�察�brutal exploitation。'' ``The need of a 

constantly expanding market for its products chases the bourgeoisie over 

the whole surface of the globe。'' ``The bourgeoisie�察�during its rule of scarce 

one     hundred      years�察  �has    created    more     massive     and    more     colossal 

productive   forces   than   have   all   preceding   generations   together。''   Feudal 

relations became fetters�此 �`They had to be burst asunder�察�they were burst 

asunder。 。 。 。 A similar movement is going on before our own eyes。'' ``The 

weapons   with   which   the   bourgeoisie   felled   feudalism   to   the   ground   are 

now turned against the bourgeoisie itself。 But not only has the bourgoisie 

forged     the  weapons      that  bring    death   to  itself�察 �it  has  also   called   into 

existence the men who are to wield those weapons the modern working 

classthe proletarians。'' 

     The cause of the destitution of the proletariat are then set forth。 ``The 

cost of production of a workman is restricted�察�almost entirely�察�to the means 

of subsistence that he requires for his maintenance and for the propagation 

of his race。 But the price of a commodity�察�and therefore also of labor�察�is 

equal     to   its   cost   of   production。      In   proportion�察    �therefore�察    �as   the 

repulsiveness   of   the   work   increases�察  �the   wage   decreases。   Nay   more�察  �in 

proportion as the use of machinery and diversion of labor increases�察�in the 

same proportion the burden of toil also increases。'' 

     ``Modern industry has converted the little workshop of the patriarchal 

master into the great factory of the industrial capitalist。 Masses of laborers�察�

crowded   into   the   factory�察  �are   organized   like   soldiers。 As   privates   of   the 

industrial army they are placed under the command of a perfect hierarchy 

of officers and sergeants。 Not only are they slaves of the bourgeois class�察�

and   of   the   bourgeois   State�察  �they   are   daily   and   hourly   enslaved   by   the 

machine�察�by  the over´looker�察 �and�察�above  all�察�by  the individual bourgeois 

manufacturer himself。 The more openly this despotism proclaims gain to 



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