the story of mankind-第34章

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the　townspeople　were　once　more　in　possession　of　all　their　old　charters

and　a　brand　new　one　which　permitted　them　to　build　a　‘‘city…hall''

and　a　strong　tower　where　all　the　charters　might　be　kept　protected

against　fire　and　theft；　which　really　meant　protected　against

future　violence　on　the　part　of　the　Lord　and　his　armed　followers。



This；　in　a　very　general　way；　is　what　happened　during　the

centuries　which　followed　the　Crusades。　It　was　a　slow　process；

this　gradual　shifting　of　power　from　the　castle　to　the　city。　There

was　some　fighting。　A　few　tailors　and　jewellers　were　killed　and

a　few　castles　went　up　in　smoke。　But　such　occurrences　were

not　common。　Almost　imperceptibly　the　towns　grew　richer

and　the　feudal　lords　grew　poorer。　To　maintain　themselves

they　were　for　ever　forced　to　exchange　charters　of　civic　liberty

in　return　for　ready　cash。　The　cities　grew。　They　offered　an

asylum　to　run…away　serfs　who　gained　their　liberty　after　they

had　lived　a　number　of　years　behind　the　city　walls。　They　came

to　be　the　home　of　the　more　energetic　elements　of　the

surrounding　country　districts。　They　were　proud　of

their　new　importance　and　expressed　their　power　in　the

churches　and　public　buildings　which　they　erected

around　the　old　market　place；　where　centuries　before

the　barter　of　eggs　and　sheep　and　honey　and　salt

had　taken　place。　They　wanted　their　children　to

have　a　better　chance　in　life　than　they　had　enjoyed

themselves。　They　hired　monks　to　come　to　their　city　and

be　school　teachers。　When　they　heard　of　a　man　who　could

paint　pictures　upon　boards　of　wood；　they　offered　him　a　pension

if　he　would　come　and　cover　the　walls　of　their　chapels　and　their

town　hall　with　scenes　from　the　Holy　Scriptures。



Meanwhile　his　Lordship；　in　the　dreary　and　drafty　halls　of

his　castle；　saw　all　this　up…start　splendour　and　regretted　the

day　when　first　he　had　signed　away　a　single　one　of　his　sovereign

rights　and　prerogatives。　But　he　was　helpless。　The　townspeople

with　their　well…filled　strong…boxes　snapped　their　fingers

at　him。　They　were　free　men；　fully　prepared　to　hold　what　they

had　gained　by　the　sweat　of　their　brow　and　after　a　struggle

which　had　lasted　for　more　than　ten　generations。







MEDIAEVAL　SELF…GOVERNMENT



HOW　THE　PEOPLE　OF　THE　CITIES　ASSERTED

THEIR　RIGHT　TO　BE　HEARD　IN　THE

ROYAL　COUNCILS　OF　THEIR　COUNTRY





As　long　as　people　were　‘‘nomads；''　wandering　tribes　of　shepherds；

all　men　had　been　equal　and　had　been　responsible　for　the

welfare　and　safety　of　the　entire　community。



But　after　they　had　settled　down　and　some　had　become　rich

and　others　had　grown　poor；　the　government　was　apt　to　fall　into

the　hands　of　those　who　were　not　obliged　to　work　for　their　living

and　who　could　devote　themselves　to　politics。



I　have　told　you　how　this　had　happened　in　Egypt　and　in

Mesopotamia　and　in　Greece　and　in　Rome。　It　occurred　among

the　Germanic　population　of　western　Europe　as　soon　as　order

had　been　restored。　The　western　European　world　was　ruled

in　the　first　place　by　an　emperor　who　was　elected　by　the　seven

or　eight　most　important　kings　of　the　vast　Roman　Empire　of

the　German　nation　and　who　enjoyed　a　great　deal　of　imaginary

and　very　little　actual　power。　It　was　ruled　by　a　number　of

kings　who　sat　upon　shaky　thrones。　The　every…day　government

was　in　the　hands　of　thousands　of　feudal　princelets。　Their

subjects　were　peasants　or　serfs。　There　were　few　cities。　There

was　hardly　any　middle　class。　But　during　the　thirteenth　century

（after　an　absence　of　almost　a　thousand　years）　the　middle

classthe　merchant　classonce　more　appeared　upon　the　his…

torical　stage　and　its　rise　in　power；　as　we　saw　in　the　last　chapter；

had　meant　a　decrease　in　the　influence　of　the　castle　folk。



Thus　far；　the　king；　in　ruling　his　domains；　had　only　paid

attention　to　the　wishes　of　his　noblemen　and　his　bishops。　But　the

new　world　of　trade　and　commerce　which　grew　out　of　the

Crusades　forced　him　to　recognise　the　middle　class　or　suffer

from　an　ever…increasing　emptiness　of　his　exchequer。　Their

majesties　（if　they　had　followed　their　hidden　wishes）　would

have　as　lief　consulted　their　cows　and　their　pigs　as　the　good

burghers　of　their　cities。　But　they　could　not　help　themselves。

They　swallowed　the　bitter　pill　because　it　was　gilded；　but　not

without　a　struggle。



In　England；　during　the　absence　of　Richard　the　Lion

Hearted　（who　had　gone　to　the　Holy　Land；　but　who　was　spending

the　greater　part　of　his　crusading　voyage　in　an　Austrian

jail）　the　government　of　the　country　had　been　placed　in　the

hands　of　John；　a　brother　of　Richard；　who　was　his　inferior　in

the　art　of　war；　but　his　equal　as　a　bad　administrator。　John　had

begun　his　career　as　a　regent　by　losing　Normandy　and　the

greater　part　of　the　French　possessions。　Next；　he　had　managed

to　get　into　a　quarrel　with　Pope　Innocent　III；　the　famous

enemy　of　the　Hohenstaufens。　The　Pope　had　excommunicated

John　（as　Gregory　VII　had　excommunicated　the　Emperor

Henry　IV　two　centuries　before）。　In　the　year　1213　John　had

been　obliged　to　make　an　ignominious　peace　just　as　Henry　IV

had　been　obliged　to　do　in　the　year　1077。



Undismayed　by　his　lack　of　success；　John　continued　to　abuse

his　royal　power　until　his　disgruntled　vassals　made　a　prisoner

of　their　anointed　ruler　and　forced　him　to　promise　that　he

would　be　good　and　would　never　again　interfere　with　the　ancient

rights　of　his　subjects。　All　this　happened　on　a　little　island　in

the　Thames；　near　the　village　of　Runnymede；　on　the　15th　of

June　of　the　year　1215。　The　document　to　which　John　signed

his　name　was　called　the　Big　Charterthe　Magna　Carta。　It

contained　very　little　that　was　new。　It　re…stated　in　short　and

direct　sentences　the　ancient　duties　of　the　king　and　enumerated

the　privileges　of　his　vassals。　It　paid　little　attention　to　the

rights　（if　any）　of　the　vast　majority　of　the　people；　the　peasants；

but　it　offered　certain　securities　to　the　rising　class　of　the

merchants。　It　was　a　charter　of　great　importance　because　it　defined

the　powers　of　the　king　with　more　precision　than　had　ever　been

done　before。　But　it　was　still　a　purely　mediaeval　document。　It

did　not　refer　to　common　human　beings；　unless　they　happened　to

be　the　property　of　the　vassal；　which　must　be　safe…guarded

against　royal　tyranny　just　as　the　Baronial　woods　and　cows

were　protected　against　an　excess　of　zeal　on　the　part　of　the

royal　foresters。



A　few　years　later；　however；　we　begin　to　hear　a　very　different

note　in　the　councils　of　His　Majesty。



John；　who　was　bad；　both　by　birth　and　inclination；　solemnly

had　promised　to　obey　the　great　charter　and　then　had　broken

every　one　of　its　many　stipulations。　Fortunately；　he　soon　died

and　was　succeeded　by　his　son　Henry　III；　who　was　forced　to

recognise　the　charter　anew。　Meanwhile；　Uncle　Richard；　the

Crusader；　had　cost　the　country　a　great　deal　of　money　and　the

king　was　obliged　to　ask　for　a　few　loans　that　he　might　pay　his

obligations　to　the　Jewish　money…lenders。　The　large　land…owners

and　the　bishops　who　acted　as　councillors　to　the　king　could

not　provide　him　with　the　necessary　gold　and　silver。　The　king

then　gave　orders　that　a　few　representatives　of　the　cities　be

called　upon　to　attend　the　sessions　of　his　Great　Council。　They

made　their　first　appearance　in　the　year　1265。　They　were　supposed

to　act　only　as　financial　experts　who　were　not　supposed

to　take　a　part　in　the　general　discussion　of　matters　of　state；　but

to　give　advice　exclusively　upon　the　question　of　taxation。



Gradually；　however；　these　representatives　of　the　‘‘commons''

were　consulted　upon　many　of　the　problems　and　the　meeting

of　noblemen；　bishops　and　city　delegates　developed　into　a　regular

Parliament；　a　place　‘‘ou　l'on　parfait；''　which　means　in　English

where　people　talked；　before　important　affairs　of　state　were

decided　upon。



But　the　institution　of　such　a　general　advisory…board　with

certain　executive　powers　was　not　an　English　invention；　as

seems　to　ke　the　general　belief；　and　government　by　a　‘‘king　and

his　parliament''　was　by　no　means　restri