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第117章

the critique of pure reason-第117章

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to declare: There are certain subjects which cannot be annihilated

in thought。 But this is nothing more than saying: There exist subjects

which are absolutely necessary… the very hypothesis which you are

called upon to establish。 For I find myself unable to form the

slightest conception of a thing which when annihilated in thought with

all its predicates; leaves behind a contradiction; and contradiction

is the only criterion of impossibility in the sphere of pure a

priori conceptions。

  Against these general considerations; the justice of which no one

can dispute; one argument is adduced; which is regarded as

furnishing a satisfactory demonstration from the fact。 It is

affirmed that there is one and only one conception; in which the

non…being or annihilation of the object is self…contradictory; and

this is the conception of an ens realissimum。 It possesses; you say;

all reality; and you feel yourselves justified in admitting the

possibility of such a being。 (This I am willing to grant for the

present; although the existence of a conception which is not

self…contradictory is far from being sufficient to prove the

possibility of an object。)* Now the notion of all reality embraces

in it that of existence; the notion of existence lies; therefore; in

the conception of this possible thing。 If this thing is annihilated in

thought; the internal possibility of the thing is also annihilated;

which is self…contradictory。



  *A conception is always possible; if it is not self…contradictory。

This is the logical criterion of possibility; distinguishing the

object of such a conception from the nihil negativum。 But it may be;

notwithstanding; an empty conception; unless the objective reality

of this synthesis; but which it is generated; is demonstrated; and a

proof of this kind must be based upon principles of possible

experience; and not upon the principle of analysis or contradiction。

This remark may be serviceable as a warning against concluding; from

the possibility of a conception… which is logical… the possibility

of a thing… which is real。



  I answer: It is absurd to introduce… under whatever term

disguised… into the conception of a thing; which is to be cogitated

solely in reference to its possibility; the conception of its

existence。 If this is admitted; you will have apparently gained the

day; but in reality have enounced nothing but a mere tautology。 I ask;

is the proposition; this or that thing (which I am admitting to be

possible) exists; an analytical or a synthetical proposition? If the

former; there is no addition made to the subject of your thought by

the affirmation of its existence; but then the conception in your

minds is identical with the thing itself; or you have supposed the

existence of a thing to be possible; and then inferred its existence

from its internal possibility… which is but a miserable tautology。 The

word reality in the conception of the thing; and the word existence in

the conception of the predicate; will not help you out of the

difficulty。 For; supposing you were to term all positing of a thing

reality; you have thereby posited the thing with all its predicates in

the conception of the subject and assumed its actual existence; and

this you merely repeat in the predicate。 But if you confess; as

every reasonable person must; that every existential proposition is

synthetical; how can it be maintained that the predicate of

existence cannot be denied without contradiction?… a property which is

the characteristic of analytical propositions; alone。

  I should have a reasonable hope of putting an end for ever to this

sophistical mode of argumentation; by a strict definition of the

conception of existence; did not my own experience teach me that the

illusion arising from our confounding a logical with a real

predicate (a predicate which aids in the determination of a thing)

resists almost all the endeavours of explanation and illustration。 A

logical predicate may be what you please; even the subject may be

predicated of itself; for logic pays no regard to the content of a

judgement。 But the determination of a conception is a predicate; which

adds to and enlarges the conception。 It must not; therefore; be

contained in the conception。

  Being is evidently not a real predicate; that is; a conception of

something which is added to the conception of some other thing。 It

is merely the positing of a thing; or of certain determinations in it。

Logically; it is merely the copula of a judgement。 The proposition;

God is omnipotent; contains two conceptions; which have a certain

object or content; the word is; is no additional predicate… it

merely indicates the relation of the predicate to the subject。 Now; if

I take the subject (God) with all its predicates (omnipotence being

one); and say: God is; or; There is a God; I add no new predicate to

the conception of God; I merely posit or affirm the existence of the

subject with all its predicates… I posit the object in relation to

my conception。 The content of both is the same; and there is no

addition made to the conception; which expresses merely the

possibility of the object; by my cogitating the object… in the

expression; it is… as absolutely given or existing。 Thus the real

contains no more than the possible。 A hundred real dollars contain

no more than a hundred possible dollars。 For; as the latter indicate

the conception; and the former the object; on the supposition that the

content of the former was greater than that of the latter; my

conception would not be an expression of the whole object; and would

consequently be an inadequate conception of it。 But in reckoning my

wealth there may be said to be more in a hundred real dollars than

in a hundred possible dollars… that is; in the mere conception of

them。 For the real object… the dollars… is not analytically

contained in my conception; but forms a synthetical addition to my

conception (which is merely a determination of my mental state);

although this objective reality… this existence… apart from my

conceptions; does not in the least degree increase the aforesaid

hundred dollars。

  By whatever and by whatever number of predicates… even to the

complete determination of it… I may cogitate a thing; I do not in

the least augment the object of my conception by the addition of the

statement: This thing exists。 Otherwise; not exactly the same; but

something more than what was cogitated in my conception; would

exist; and I could not affirm that the exact object of my conception

had real existence。 If I cogitate a thing as containing all modes of

reality except one; the mode of reality which is absent is not added

to the conception of the thing by the affirmation that the thing

exists; on the contrary; the thing exists… if it exist at all… with

the same defect as that cogitated in its conception; otherwise not

that which was cogitated; but something different; exists。 Now; if I

cogitate a being as the highest reality; without defect or

imperfection; the question still remains… whether this being exists or

not? For; although no element is wanting in the possible real

content of my conception; there is a defect in its relation to my

mental state; that is; I am ignorant whether the cognition of the

object indicated by the conception is possible a posteriori。 And

here the cause of the present difficulty becomes apparent。 If the

question regarded an object of sense merely; it would be impossible

for me to confound the conception with the existence of a thing。 For

the conception merely enables me to cogitate an object as according

with the general conditions of experience; while the existence of

the object permits me to cogitate it as contained in the sphere of

actual experience。 At the same time; this connection with the world of

experience does not in the least augment the conception; although a

possible perception has been added to the experience of the mind。

But if we cog

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