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心理学与生活-第105章

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9。 Name and discuss the types of schizophrenic disorders 
10。 Suggest some factors that may play causal roles in the development of mental illness 
CHAPTER OUTLINE 

I。 The Nature of Psychological Disorders 
A。 Definitions 
1。 Psychopathological functioning involves disruptions in emotional; 
behavioral; or thought processes that lead to personal distress or that 
block one’s ability to achieve important goals 
2。 Abnormal psychology is the area of psychological investigation most 
directly concerned with understanding the nature of individual 
pathologies of mind; mood; and behavior 
B。 Deciding What Is Abnormal 
1。 DSM…IV…TR provides seven criteria for determining behavior as 
abnormal 
a) Distress or disability: An individual experiences personal 
distress of disabled functioning; producing risk of physical 
and/or psychological deterioration or loss of freedom of 
action 

b) Maladaptiveness: An individual behaves in a fashion that 
hinders goal attainment; does not contribute to personal 
well…being; or often interferes significantly with the goals of 
others and needs of society 

c) Irrationality: An individual acts or speaks in ways that are 

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irrational or inprehensible to others 

d) Unpredictability: An individual behaviors unpredictably from 
situation to situation; as though experiencing loss of control 

e) Unconventionality and statistical rarity: An individual violates 
norms of socially acceptable behavior in a manner that is 
statistically rare 

f) Observer disfort: An individual behaviors such that it 
makes others unfortable by feeling threatened or 
distressed 

g) Violation of moral and ideal standards: An individual violates 
expectations for how one ought to behave; according to 
societal norms 

2。 No single DSM…IV…TR criteria is; by itself; a sufficient condition to 
distinguish all instances of abnormal behavior from normal 
variations in behavior 
3。 Mental disorder is a continuum; that ranges from mental health at 
one extreme and mental illness at the other 
C。 The Problem of Objectivity 
1。 The decision to declare an individual as psychologically disordered 
or abnormal is a judgment about behavior。 The goal is to make these 
judgments as objective as possible; without bias。 
2。 Following assignment of the label “abnormal;” others tend to 
interpret the individual so designated in a manner that confirms the 
judgment as demonstrated by Rosenhan’s “sane in an insane place” 
experience 
3。 Laing posits that labeling as “mad” suppresses the creative; unique 
probing of reality by individuals who are questioning their social 
context 
4。 Some psychologists advocate a contextual or ecological model of 
schizophrenia 
5。 Ecological models view abnormality not as the result of a disease 
within the person; but as a product of interaction between 
individuals and society 
6。 Abnormality is viewed as a mismatch between the individual’s 
abilities and the needs and norms of society 
D。 Historical Perspectives 
1。 Historically; people have feared psychological disorders; often 
associating them with evil; and imprisoning and subjecting those 
affected to radical treatment 
a) Hysteria was originally thought to affect only women and to 
be caused by a wandering uterus under the devil’s control 

2。 Emergence of the medical model occurred in the late 1700s; when society 
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began perceiving those with psychological disorders as suffering 
from illness; rather than as possessed or immoral 

a) Pinel was an early developer of a classification system for 
psychological difficulties; based on the premise that 
disorders of thought; mood; and behavior were somewhat 
similar to physical; organic illnesses 

b) The first prehensive classification system of 
psychological disorders was created by Kraepelin in 1896 

3。 Emergence of psychological models; an alternative to the medical model; 
focusing on the psychological causes and treatment of abnormal 
behavior; emerged from the late 1700s through the 1800s 
a) Mesmer proposed that some disorders were due to 
disruptions in the flow of a force he called animal magnetism; 
and pioneered new techniques eventually to bee known 
as hypnotism 

b) Mesmer’s techniques were adopted by Jean Charcot; who 
passed that knowledge to his student; Sigmund Freud 

E。 The Etiology of Psychopathology 
1。 Etiology refers to the causal or contributory factors in the 
development of psychological and medical problems 
2。 Two general categories of causal factors: 
a) Biological approaches assume that psychological disturbances 
are directly attributable to underlying biological factors such 
as structural abnormalities in the brain 

b) Psychological approaches focus on the causal role of 
psychological or social factors as contributing to the 
development of psychopathology。 Three models 
predominate。 

(i) Psychodynamic。 This model; as developed by Freud; 
posited the causes of psychopathology as located 
inside the person; holding those factors to be 
psychological; rather than physiological 
(a) Symptoms are rooted in unconscious conflict; 
much of which derives from conflict between id 
and superego 
(b) Defense mechanisms (repression; denial) can be 
effected to avoid pain resulting from conflicting 
motives and anxieties 
(ii) Behavioral theorists posit abnormal behaviors as 
being acquired in the same manner as normal 
behaviors…through learning and reinforcement 
(a) Focus is on current behavior and current 
conditions that may be reinforcing the behavior 
(b) Both classical and operant conditioning models 
are used to understand the processes that can 
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result in maladaptive behavior 

(iii) Cognitive perspectives may be used to supplement 
behavioristic views 
(a) How the individual perceives and thinks about 
him… or herself; and his/her relations with others 
in the environment are important issues 
(b) This approach suggests problems are the result of 
distortions in perceptions of the reality of a 
situation 
(iv) The sociocultural perspective emphasizes the role 
culture plays in both the diagnosis and etiology of 
abnormal behavior 
c) Most recently; the interactionist perspective is being 
increasingly popular; and is viewed as a product of the 
plex interactions between a number of biological and 
psychological factors 

II。Classifying Psychological Disorders 
A。 Psychological Diagnosis: The label given to an abnormality by classifying and 
categorizing the observed behavior pattern into an approved diagnostic system 
B。 Goals of Classification 
1。 A useful diagnostic system provides the following three benefits: 
a) mon shorthand language: A mon set of agreed…upon 
meanings; given that it is imperative that researchers 
studying different aspects of psychopathology; or evaluating 
treatment programs; can agree on the disorder they are 
observing 

b) Understanding etiology: Under ideal circumstances; a 
diagnosis of a specific disorder should make clear the 
cause(s) of the symptoms; this is not always possible with 
psychological disorders 

c) Treatment plan: Diagnosis should suggest types of treatment 
to consider for particular disorders 

C。 DSM…IV…TR 
1。 The 4th revision of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental 
Disorders (DSM) classifies; defines; and describes more than 200 
mental disorders 
2。 DSM…IV…TR emphasizes the description of patterns of symptoms and 
courses of disorders; rather than etiological theories or treatment 
strategies 
3。 DSM…IV…TR uses dimensions or axes that portray information about 
the psychological; social; and physical factors that may be associated 
with a psychological disorder 
4。 Current DSM…IV…TR categories or axes are: 
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a) Axis I: Clinical Disorders 

(i) These disorders present symptoms of patterns of 
behavioral or psychological problems that typically 
are painful or impair an area of functioning。 
Included are disorders that emerge in infancy; 
childhood; or adolesc

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