心理学与生活-第121章
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example of the scarcity principle in action
5。 Modeling
a） People can bring about pliance and behavior change by
modeling the desired behavior
b） This technique draws on the principle of conformity
IV。 Social Relationships
A。 Liking
1。 People tend to bee attracted to people with whom they are in
close proximity； by virtue of mere exposure
2。 Physical attractiveness often plays a role in development of
friendships。
3。 Similarity： Individuals similar to oneself provide a sense of personal
validation； because a similar individual makes one feel that the
attitudes one holds dear are the right ones。 Conversely； dissimilarity
often leads to strong repulsion
4。 Reciprocity： As individuals； we tend to like other individuals who
like us。
B。 Loving
1。 In most cases； we first liked the person we e to love
2。 The Experience of Love
a） Conceptualizations of love cluster into three dimensions：
（i） Passion： sexual passion and desire
（ii） Intimacy： honesty and understanding
（iii） mitment： devotion and sacrifice
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CHAPTER 17： SOCIAL PROCESSES AND RELATIONSHIPS
b） People’s ability to sustain loving relationships also depends
on adult attachment style
（iii） Secure attachment （55 ％）
（iv） Avoidant attachment （25 ％）
（v） Anxious…ambivalent attachment （20 ％）
c） Distinctions between types of love in relationships as they
evolve over time：
（i） Passionate love： a period of great intensity and
absorption
（ii） passionate love： a migration toward a state of
lesser intensity； but greater intimacy
3。 Factors that Allow a Relationship to Last
a） One theory suggests that having a feeling that the “other” is
included in one’s “self’ helps relationships last
b） The Dependence Model suggests that likelihood to remain
together is based on a series of judgments：
（i） The degree to which intimacy； sex； emotional
involvement； panionship； and intellectual
involvement are important in the individual’s
relationship
（ii） The degree to which each of those needs is satisfied
in the relationship
（iii） For each need； whether there is anyone other than
the current partner with whom the individual has an
important relationship
（iv） The degree to which each need is satisfied by the
alternative relationship
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1。 While colleges have historically been thought of as centers of divergent thought and
intellectual freedom； many political conservatives feel that in recent years many colleges and
universities have bee centers of “political correctness” and liberal intellectual rigidity。
While these people may be overstating the case somewhat； certainly there are many
pressures on college students to conform to certain “norms” that exist on every college
campus。 These norms may be more social than political； but they still exist。 You might
explore with your students what pressures they have felt to conform while in college； in
terms of political thought； dress norms； social mores； and social attitudes。 Depending on
where your class is taught； this could turn into a very interesting discussion。 （From Koss）
2。 In discussing Milgram’s studies with your class； you might want to discuss the sociological
implications。 Do students believe that people’s willingness to obey an authority figure in
Milgram’s studies is linked to why national populations will sometimes willingly follow
tyrants like Adolf Hitler？ Are the factors that led to Milgram’s results the same ones that lead
to phenomena such as groupthink and risky shift？ Does the fact that most Americans believe
an Adolf Hitler could never do here what he did in Germany actually make us more
vulnerable to a Hitler…type if he should ever e along？ What are some ways that people
might inoculate themselves from these effects？
An elderly man suffered a severe viral infection。 Manifestations of the infection included
large blisters on his back； severe muscle and joint pain； and a conitant depressive
episode。 After three months； the man recovered pletely。 During his final visit to his
physician； as he was being given a clean bill of health； the physician remarked that his
recovery was “remarkable for a man your age。” The physician went on to say that because of
the severity of the virus； “some people just never get over the symptoms。” Before this visit；
the man had been free of pain； his depression was lifting； and he was gradually resuming his
usual level of activity。 Within two weeks； the man slipped back into his sick…role behavior of
sitting in his chair all day in front of the television。 He began telling everyone he met how ill
he was； and became convinced that he would “never get any better。” Discuss with the class
the psychological mechanisms at work with this man’s “illness” and the ments made by
his physician on that last visit。
4。 What would be the consequences of a race of people who were not “social animals；” who
were shy and fearful of all people and preferred to be in isolation？
5。 Should parents of seventh and eighth graders try to help their children resist the norms of a
peer…group drug culture？ If so； how？ What other adolescent； and adult； behaviors are
subject to peer influence？ Is this influence harmful or not？ 6。 What activities would
you arrange for your children if you wanted them to be very social； outgoing extroverts； or
the opposite； social introverts？
6。 Ask the class how they might use the cognitive dissonance principle that “changing behavior
changes attitudes” to design programs for：
。 Increasing a person’s low self…esteem
。 Modifying a deprecatory attitude toward student protesters
。 Decreasing a racial prejudice in schoolchildren
Now reverse the process and design new programs using the principle that “changing
attitudes changes behaviors” for the same problems。 Which principle do you think the class
will be more successful using？ Why？
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CHAPTER 17： SOCIAL PROCESSES AND RELATIONSHIPS
SUPPLEMENTAL LECTURE MATERIAL
Cognitive Dissonance
A high school girl believed the use of drugs to be physically harmful and morally wrong。 She
was invited to a party given by a group from her class that she admired。 Other people at the
party were using cocaine and drinking wine and； because she wanted to be accepted by the
group； she decided she should do what the others were doing。 The next day she was tense and
unfortable because she had done something that she believed to be wrong。 She was suffering
from cognitive dissonance。
The theory of cognitive dissonance was proposed in the 1950s by psychologist Leon Festinger。 It
is a very simple theory； but one applicable to an enormous range of situations。 Cognitive
dissonance is defined as a state of tension that exists when two （or more） cognitions are
psychologically inconsistent； with that inconsistency creating tension。 Festinger considered
tension motivating because when tension occurs； there is a motive to reduce or eliminate it。
“Cognition” is a broad term that includes perception； reasoning； beliefs； values； and attitudes…any
form of knowledge or knowing。 “Psychologically inconsistent” means that the individual
possessing the cognitions perceives them to be inpatible or in conflict。 This is the Achilles
heel of the theory； because psychological inconsistency is subjective； it cannot be directly
observed and measured。
Dissonance sometimes occurs after making a decision that is irrevocable； or that would be very
difficult to reverse。 Suppose a high school senior has narrowed his choice of colleges to two； both
equally attractive。 He has to make a decision and choose one of the schools。 When he chooses
one； he has to give up the things he likes about the other。 What are the dissonant cognitions？ I
chose school A； therefore I have to give up all things I liked about school B。 What does he do to
reduce the dissonance？ He accentuates the positive aspects of school A and the negative aspects
of school B。 He may decide that the things he liked about school B are not really important。
Two students have identical new c
