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心理学与生活-第120章

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(a) People are not entirely swayed by normative 
influence。 They assert their independence on a 
majority of occasions 
(b) People will sometimes conform; even in the most 
unambiguous situations。 That potential to 
conform is an important element of human 
nature 
4。 Conformity in Everyday Life: Minority influence and nonconformity 
a) Majority decisions tend to be made without engaging the 
systematic thought and critical thinking skills of the 
individuals in the group 

b) Minority groups have little normative influence; but they do 
have informational influence 

c) The majority tends to be the defender of the status quo 

5。 Groupthink is the tendency of a decision…making group to filter out 
undesirable input so that a consensus may be reached; especially if 
the consensus is in line with the leader’s viewpoint。 
E。 Situational Power: Candid Camera Revelations 
1。 Smart; independent; rational; good people can be led to behave in 
ways that are foolish; pliant; irrational; and evil 
2。 Human nature follows a situational script to the letter 
338 


CHAPTER 17: SOCIAL PROCESSES AND RELATIONSHIPS 

IInstructing Social Reality 
A。 Social Reality 
1。 Two individuals; observing the same event; may interpret it in very 
different ways。 Each constructs social reality in a unique way; bringing 
his or her personal knowledge and experience to bear in interpreting 
the situation 
2。 There is no objective social reality; there are only the individual’s 
construction and interpretation of it 
3。 Social Perception is the process by which people e to understand 
and categorize the behaviors of others 
B。 The Origins of Attribution Theory 
1。 Attribution theory is a general approach to describe the ways the 
social perceiver uses information to generate causal explanations 
a) Heider suggested people are all intuitive psychologists; 
attempting to discern what people are like and what causes 
their behavior 

b) Heider suggested that questions dominating most 
attributional analyses are whether the cause of the behavior 
is dispositional (internal) or situational (external) 

2。 Kelley observed that people most often make causal attributions for 
events under conditions of uncertainty using the covariation principle 
a) Covariation principle: People attribute behavior to a causal 
factor if that factor was present when the behavior occurred; 
but was absent whenever the behavior didn’t occur 

b) Covariation is assessed using three dimensions of 
information 

(i) Distinctiveness refers to whether the behavior is 
specific to a particular situation 
(ii) Consistency refers to whether the behavior occurs 
repeatedly in response to this situation 
(iii) Consensus refers to whether other people also 
produce the same behavior in the same situation 
C。 The Fundamental Attribution Error 
1。 The Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE) represents the dual 
tendency for people to overestimate dispositional factors and to 
underestimate situational ones when searching for the cause of some 
behavior of oute 
a) The FAE may be due in part to cultural sources 

D。 Self…serving bias leads people to take credit for their successes while denying 
responsibility for their failures 
E。 Expectations and Self…Fulfilling Prophecies 
339 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

1。 Self…fulfilling prophecies are predictions made about some future 
behavior or event that modifies interactions to produce what is 
expected 
2。 Expectations are powerful and self…fulfilling prophecies are most 
likely to occur when the individual has not had an opportunity to 
develop accurate expectations before judgments must be made 
F。 Behaviors that Confirm Expectations 
1。 Behavioral confirmation is the process by which someone’s 
expectations about another person actually influence the second 
person to behave in ways that confirm the original hypothesis 
a) Behavior confirmation depends on the availability of 
accurate information from the environment 

b) Expectations have their greatest effect when the actual state 
of the world is uncertain 

III。 Attitudes; Attitude Change; and Action 
A。 Attitudes and Behaviors 
1。 An attitude is a positive or negative evaluation of people; objects; or 
ideas 
2。 Three types of experiences give rise to attitudes: 
a) Cognitive 

b) Affective 

c) Behavioral 

3。 One property of attitudes that predicts behavior is accessibility; the 
strength of the association between an attitude object and a person’s 
evaluation of that object 
a) Attitudes are more accessible when they are based on direct 
experience 

4。 Attitudes are more predictive of behavior when the attitudes and 
behaviors are measured at the same level of specificity 
B。 Processes of Persuasion 
1。 Persuasion refers to deliberate efforts to change attitude 
2。 The Elaboration Likelihood Model suggests that there are two routes to 
persuasion: 
a) The Central Route represents circumstances in which people 
think carefully about a persuasive munication so that 
attitude change depends on the logical strength of the 
arguments。 Central route arguments depend on facts; 
features; and objective qualities。 

340 


CHAPTER 17: SOCIAL PROCESSES AND RELATIONSHIPS 

b) The Peripheral Route represents circumstances in which 
people do not focus critically on the message; but respond to 
superficial cues in the situation。 Peripheral route messages 
depend on sex appeal; image; prestige; and subjective 
qualities。 

3。 The route that people take depends on their motivation to process 
and critically analyze the message 
C。 Persuasion by Your Own Actions 
1。 Dissonance Theory 
a) Cognitive dissonance is the state of conflict someone 
experiences after making a decision; taking an action; or 
being exposed to information that is contrary to prior beliefs; 
feelings; or values 

(i) Dissonance…reducing activities modify the 
unpleasant state and achieve consonance among 
cognitions 
(ii) Dissonance has motivational force and impels the 
individual to act to reduce the unpleasant feeling 
(iii) The greater the dissonance; the greater the 
motivation to reduce it 
b) Under conditions of high dissonance; the individual acts to 
justify his or her behavior after the fact; engages in self…
persuasion; and often bees a convincing municator 

c) Recently researchers have begun to question whether 
dissonance effects generalize to cultures in which 
individuals have an interdependent conception of self; such 
as in Japan 

2。 Self…Perception theory 
a) Given that in Western culture; people are quick to make 
dispositional attributions about the behavior of others; it 
should not be surprising that they have the same bias 
toward themselves 

(i) Internal states are inferred by perceiving how one is 
acting now and recalling how one was active in a 
given situation in the past 
(ii) Self…knowledge allows the individual to reason 
backward to the most likely causes or determinants 
of behavior 
b) Self…perception theory lacks the motivational ponents of 
dissonance theory 

D。 pliance 
1。 Often people want to change not only your attitudes; but your 
behavior so that you ply with their requests。 pliance 
techniques include the following: 
2。 Reciprocity 
341 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

a) The Reciprocity Norm states that when someone else does 
something for you; you should do something for them 

b) The Door…in…the…Face Technique works because when people 
say “no” to a large request; they will often say “yes” to a 
more moderate request; it arises from the reciprocity norm 

3。 mitment 
a) The mitment principle states that if you make a small 
mitment; you will be more likely to mit to 
something larger in the future 

b) Use of the mitment strategy in pliance attempts is 
often called the Foot…in…the…Door Technique 

4。 Scarcity 
a) The scarcity principle states that people dislike feeling that 
they can’t have something; thus; people desire the scare 
object more 

b) The countdown timer on home shopping networks is a good 
example of the scarcity principle in action 

5。 Modeling 
a) People can bring a

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