心理学与生活-第49章
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between reinforcements remains constant； but the actual number of
responses between reinforcements varies around this average。 VR
schedules produce the highest response rates and the greatest
resistance to extinction。
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5。 In a Fixed…Interval Schedule （FI）； reinforcement is delivered for the first
response made after a fixed period of time has elapsed。 Response rates
under a FI schedule show a scalloped pattern。 Immediately after
reinforcement； response rates are low； but； as the time interval nears
expiration； response rates increase。
6。 In a Variable…Interval Schedule （VI）； the average time interval between
reinforcements is predetermined。 This schedule generates a moderate
but stable response rate。
F。 Shaping
1。 Shaping is a method of behavior modification in which successive
approximations to the desired behavior are reinforced。 For shaping to
be effective； what constitutes progress toward the target behavior must
be defined； and differential reinforcement schedules must be used to
refine behavior。
2。 Chaining is a technique used to teach sequences of actions。 In
chaining； the last response of the sequence is reinforced first。
3。 Each link in the behavior chain serves as a discriminative stimulus for
the next response line and as a conditioned reinforcer for the response
that immediately precedes it
IV。 Biology and Learning
A。 Biological constraints on learning are limitations on learning imposed by a species’ genetic
endowment
B。 Instinctual Drift is the process by which learned behavior drifts toward instinctual
behavior。 Instinctual Drift is understandable considering the species…specific tendencies
imposed by an inherited genotype。
C。 Taste…Aversion Learning is a powerful type of teaming that is learned through only one
pairing of a CS （the flavor） and its consequences （the illness）。 Although the flavor did not
cause the illness； the flavor is associated with the UCS； perhaps a virus； which did cause
the illness。
1。 Once taste…aversion learning has occurred； the organism will never
consume the flavor again
2。 The time between the presentation of the CS and when the organism
bees ill can be very long； 12 hours or more
3。 Certain types of animals are biologically predisposed to learn certain
associations
4。 Taste…aversion learning has practical aspects。 For example； coyotes
can be taught through taste…aversion learning to despise sheep meat。
Vgnitive Influences on Learning
A。 Cognition is any mental activity involved in the representation and processing of
knowledge； such as thinking； remembering； perceiving； and talking
B。 Animal Cognition
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CHAPTER 7： LEARNING AND BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
1。 Researchers have demonstrated that it is not only classical and
operant conditioning that generalizes across species。 Cognition； to
some extent； does as well。
2。 Cognitive maps are internal representations of the physical
characteristics of the external environment。 For rats； cognitive maps
may indicate where food is located in a maze。 Spatial cognitive maps
can be used to：
a） Recognize and identify features in the environment
b） Find important goal objects in the environment
c） Plan an efficient route through the environment
3。 Conceptual Behavior； the cognitive ability to make conceptual
distinctions and to generalize about new concepts and categories； is
found is some animals as well as in humans
C。 Observational Learning
1。 Observational； or social； learning refers to learning done vicariously。 In
observational learning； an organism simply watches another perform
a behavior； notes the consequences； and modifies its own behavior
accordingly。
a） Vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment play a
large role in observational learning
b） Observational learning is not unique to humans
c） Research has well documented children’s tendency to imitate
adult models
d） A model’s observed behavior is most influential when：
（i） The behavior is seen as having reinforcing consequences
（ii） The model is liked； respected； and perceived positively
（iii） There are perceived similarities between the model and
the observer
（iv） The observer is rewarded for paying attention to the
model’s behavior
（v） The model’s behavior is visible and salient
（vi） It is within the observer’s range of petence to imitate
the behavior
e） Because of the violent nature of many television shows；
individuals may learn antisocial behavior simply by
observing it on television。 Research suggests that there are
two major effects of filmed violence。
（i） Psychic numbing involves a reduction in both emotional
arousal and in distress at viewing violence
（ii） An increase in the likelihood of engaging in aggressive
behavior
f） Pro…social； as well as antisocial lessons； can be learned from
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television viewing。
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CHAPTER 7： LEARNING AND BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1。 Discuss how radical behaviorism； as proposed by Skinner； might be used to explain
cognitive development； because cognition is not an observable process and behaviorists
only studied observable processes。
2。 What if a child’s behavior was followed by random events； instead of predictable
consequences？ What behavioral outes might we expect to see with children in such a
situation？
3。 Given that “little Albert” was removed from Watson’s experiment before his having been
desensitized； how might his conditioned fear manifest itself in “big Albert”？
4。 Discuss with the class instances in which secondary gains can provide reinforcement for
behaviors that may be irrational and self…defeating。
5。 Discuss examples of the principle of observational learning in the animal kingdom。
SUPPLEMENTAL LECTURE MATERIAL
A Summary of Some Interesting Aspects of Classical
Conditioning
1。 Any stimulus we can perceive has the potential to bee a conditioned stimulus。
2。 Perception of the CS can take place below the level of conscious awareness。
3。 Any response we make naturally can e to be elicited by a learned signal。
4。 These responses can be highly specific and simple （such as a muscle twitch or part of a
brain wave pattern） or general and plex （such as sexual arousal or fear）。
5。 The conditioned response can be a response of our skeletal muscles or visceral organs or
even a “private” response （such as thoughts and feelings）。
6。 With a powerful original UCS； conditioning may take place in only one trial in which the
UCS is paired with a CS。
7。 Stimuli quite different from the original CS can control the appearance of the conditioned
response through higher…order conditioning。
8。 Depending on the strength of the CR and the nature of the conditioning process； some
learned responses resist extinction and may endure for a lifetime。
Taken together； these principles reveal the remarkable adaptability of organisms to learned
conditioned associations； but they also are somewhat disturbing。 It is obvious that inappropriate
conditioning that is not in our best interest also takes place。 Examples of such inappropriate
conditioning include the learning of persistent irrational behaviors； superstitions； and conditioned
addictions。
The Effects of Corporal Punishment
The use of punishment in the control of human behavior is not merely a matter of deciding whether
it works； aside from the psychological questions involved in punishing people for “undesirable
behavior；” there are moral and legal issues to be considered。 Corporal punishment is defined in
educational terms as the inflicting of pain by a teacher or school official on the body of a student as
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a penalty for doing something that is disapproved of by the punisher。 This includes confinement in
an unfortable space； forced eating of noxious substances； and standing for long periods。 The
four most mon justifications for using corporal punishment are the following：
1。 It is a proven and effective method for changing undesirable behavior
2。 It develops a sense of personal respon
