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encoding¡¡and¡¡retrieval¡¡conditions¡¡
B¡£¡¡Context¡¡and¡¡Encoding¡¡
1¡£¡¡Encoding¡¡specificity¡¡suggests¡¡that¡¡memories¡¡emerge¡¡most¡¡efficiently¡¡
when¡¡the¡¡context¡¡of¡¡retrieval¡¡matches¡¡the¡¡context¡¡of¡¡encoding¡¡
2¡£¡¡The¡¡Serial¡¡Position¡¡Effect¡¡suggests¡¡that¡¡the¡¡first¡¡and¡¡last¡¡items¡¡in¡¡a¡¡series¡¡
will¡¡be¡¡remembered¡¡better¡¡than¡¡items¡¡in¡¡the¡¡middle¡¡and¡¡is¡¡prised¡¡
of¡¡two¡¡separate¡¡effects£º¡¡
a£©¡¡The¡¡Primacy¡¡Effect¡¡suggests¡¡that¡¡the¡¡first¡¡items¡¡learned¡¡in¡¡a¡¡
series¡¡will¡¡be¡¡remembered¡¡better¡¡than¡¡others¡¡

b£©¡¡The¡¡Recency¡¡Effect¡¡suggests¡¡that¡¡the¡¡last¡¡items¡¡learned¡¡in¡¡a¡¡
series¡¡will¡¡be¡¡remembered¡¡better¡¡than¡¡others¡¡

c£©¡¡Contextual¡¡Distinctiveness¡¡suggests¡¡that¡¡the¡¡distinctiveness¡¡of¡¡
an¡¡item¡¡in¡¡a¡¡series¡¡may¡¡explain¡¡both¡¡the¡¡primacy¡¡and¡¡the¡¡
recency¡¡effects¡¡

C¡£¡¡Retrieval¡¡Cues¡¡
1¡£¡¡Recall¡¡involves¡¡the¡¡reproduction¡¡of¡¡information¡¡to¡¡which¡¡you¡¡were¡¡
previously¡¡exposed¡¡
2¡£¡¡Recognition¡¡refers¡¡to¡¡the¡¡realization¡¡that¡¡a¡¡certain¡¡stimulus¡¡event¡¡is¡¡one¡¡
you¡¡have¡¡seen¡¡or¡¡heard¡¡before¡¡
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PSYCHOLOGY¡¡AND¡¡LIFE¡¡

3¡£¡¡Retrieval¡¡cues¡¡are¡¡the¡¡stimuli¡¡available¡¡as¡¡you¡¡search¡¡for¡¡a¡¡particular¡¡
memory¡¡
a£©¡¡Retrieval¡¡cues¡¡can¡¡be¡¡provided¡¡externally¡¡by¡¡the¡¡environment£»¡¡
or¡¡generated¡¡internally¡¡by¡¡associations¡¡and¡¡physical¡¡states¡¡

b£©¡¡Retrieval¡¡cues¡¡are¡¡more¡¡straightforward¡¡and¡¡more¡¡useful¡¡for¡¡
recognition¡¡dm¡¡for¡¡recall¡¡

4¡£¡¡Episodic¡¡and¡¡Semantic¡¡memory¡¡are¡¡two¡¡types¡¡of¡¡declarative¡¡memory¡¡
a£©¡¡Episodic¡¡memories¡¡preserve£»¡¡individually£»¡¡the¡¡specific¡¡events¡¡
that¡¡you¡¡have¡¡personally¡¡experienced¡¡

£¨i£©¡¡All¡¡memories¡¡begin¡¡as¡¡episodic¡¡memories¡¡
b£©¡¡Semantic¡¡memories¡¡are¡¡generic£»¡¡categorical¡¡memories£»¡¡such¡¡as¡¡
the¡¡meanings¡¡of¡¡words¡¡and¡¡concepts¡¡

5¡£¡¡Interference¡¡occurs¡¡when¡¡retrieval¡¡cues¡¡do¡¡not¡¡point¡¡effectively¡¡to¡¡one¡¡
specific¡¡memory¡¡
a£©¡¡Proactive¡¡interference¡¡occurs¡¡when¡¡information¡¡acquired¡¡in¡¡the¡¡
past¡¡makes¡¡it¡¡more¡¡difficult¡¡to¡¡acquire¡¡new¡¡information¡¡

b£©¡¡Retroactive¡¡interference¡¡occurs¡¡when¡¡the¡¡acquisition¡¡of¡¡new¡¡
information¡¡makes¡¡it¡¡harder¡¡to¡¡remember¡¡older¡¡information¡¡

D¡£¡¡The¡¡Processes¡¡of¡¡Encoding¡¡and¡¡Retrieval¡¡
1¡£¡¡Memory¡¡functions¡¡best¡¡when¡¡encoding¡¡and¡¡retrieval¡¡processes¡¡match¡¡
2¡£¡¡Levels¡­of¡­Processing¡¡theory¡¡suggests¡¡that¡¡the¡¡deeper¡¡the¡¡level¡¡at¡¡which¡¡
information¡¡is¡¡processed£»¡¡the¡¡more¡¡likely¡¡it¡¡is¡¡to¡¡be¡¡mitted¡¡to¡¡
memory¡¡
a£©¡¡A¡¡difficulty¡¡with¡¡levels¡­of¡­processing¡¡theory¡¡is¡¡that¡¡it¡¡is¡¡not¡¡
always¡¡possible¡¡to¡¡specify¡¡exactly¡¡what¡¡makes¡¡certain¡¡
processes¡¡¡°shallow¡±¡¡or¡¡¡°deep¡±¡¡

3¡£¡¡Processes¡¡and¡¡Implicit¡¡Memory¡¡
a£©¡¡Transfer¡­appropriate¡¡processing¡¡suggests¡¡that¡¡memory¡¡is¡¡best¡¡
when¡¡the¡¡type¡¡of¡¡processing¡¡carried¡¡out¡¡at¡¡encoding¡¡transfers¡¡
to¡¡the¡¡processes¡¡required¡¡at¡¡retrieval¡¡

£¨i£©¡¡Implicit¡¡memory¡¡is¡¡assessed¡¡using¡¡one¡¡of¡¡four¡¡tasks£º¡¡
£¨a£©¡¡Word¡¡fragment¡¡pletion¡¡
£¨b£©¡¡Word¡¡stem¡¡pletion¡¡
£¨c£©¡¡Word¡¡identification¡¡
£¨d£©¡¡Anagrams¡¡
b£©¡¡Priming¡¡is¡¡a¡¡process¡¡in¡¡which¡¡the¡¡first¡¡experience¡¡of¡¡the¡¡word¡¡
primes¡¡memory¡¡for¡¡later¡¡experiences£»¡¡and¡¡is¡¡used¡¡to¡¡assess¡¡the¡¡
degree¡¡of¡¡implicit¡¡memory¡¡

c£©¡¡These¡¡four¡¡implicit¡¡memory¡¡tests¡¡rely¡¡on¡¡a¡¡physical¡¡match¡¡

130¡¡


CHAPTER¡¡8£º¡¡MEMORY¡¡

between¡¡the¡¡original¡¡stimulus¡¡and¡¡the¡¡information¡¡given¡¡at¡¡

test¡¡

d£©¡¡Category¡¡association¡¡relies¡¡on¡¡meaning¡¡or¡¡concept¡¡rather¡¡than¡¡
physical¡¡match¡¡

4¡£¡¡Research¡¡suggests¡¡that¡¡if¡¡a¡¡specific¡¡type¡¡of¡¡processing¡¡is¡¡used¡¡to¡¡
encode¡¡information£»¡¡that¡¡information¡¡will¡¡be¡¡retrieved¡¡most¡¡efficiently¡¡
when¡¡the¡¡retrieval¡¡method¡¡uses¡¡the¡¡same¡¡type¡¡of¡¡analysis¡¡
E¡£¡¡Improving¡¡Memory¡¡for¡¡Unstructured¡¡Information¡¡
1¡£¡¡Information¡¡that¡¡is¡¡not¡¡meaningful¡¡is¡¡difficult¡¡to¡¡remember¡¡
2¡£¡¡Strategies¡¡for¡¡improving¡¡encoding¡¡include¡¡elaborative¡¡rehearsal¡¡and¡¡
mnemonics¡¡
a£©¡¡Elaborative¡¡rehearsal¡¡refers¡¡to¡¡elaboration¡¡on¡¡the¡¡material¡¡to¡¡
enrich¡¡encoding£»¡¡such¡¡as¡¡inventing¡¡a¡¡relationship¡¡that¡¡makes¡¡
an¡¡association¡¡less¡¡arbitrary¡¡

b£©¡¡Mnemonics¡¡are¡¡devices¡¡that¡¡encode¡¡a¡¡long¡¡series¡¡of¡¡facts¡¡by¡¡
associating¡¡them¡¡with¡¡familiar¡¡and¡¡previously¡¡encoded¡¡
information¡¡

£¨i£©¡¡Method¡¡of¡¡loci¡¡associates¡¡objects¡¡with¡¡some¡¡sequence¡¡
of¡¡places¡¡with¡¡which¡¡the¡¡individual¡¡is¡¡familiar¡¡
£¨ii£©¡¡Acrostic¡­like¡¡mnemonics¡¡use¡¡the¡¡first¡¡letter¡¡of¡¡each¡¡word¡¡
to¡¡cue¡¡a¡¡response¡¡
£¨iii£©¡¡Acronym¡¡mnemonics¡¡are¡¡instances¡¡in¡¡which¡¡the¡¡letter¡¡of¡¡
a¡¡word¡¡stands¡¡for¡¡a¡¡name¡¡or¡¡other¡¡piece¡¡of¡¡
information¡¡
3¡£¡¡The¡¡key¡¡to¡¡learning¡¡arbitrary¡¡information¡¡is¡¡to¡¡encode¡¡information¡¡in¡¡a¡¡
way¡¡that¡¡provides¡¡yourself¡¡with¡¡efficient¡¡retrieval¡¡cues¡¡
F¡£¡¡Metamemory¡¡
1¡£¡¡Metamemory¡¡refers¡¡to¡¡implicit¡¡or¡¡explicit¡¡knowledge¡¡about¡¡memory¡¡
abilities¡¡and¡¡effective¡¡memory¡¡strategies¡¡
2¡£¡¡Feelings¡­of¡­knowing¡¡are¡¡subjective¡¡sensations¡¡that¡¡the¡¡information¡¡is¡¡
stored¡¡somewhere¡¡in¡¡memory¡¡
a£©¡¡The¡¡cue¡¡familiarity¡¡hypothesis¡¡suggests¡¡that¡¡people¡¡base¡¡their¡¡
feelings¡¡of¡¡knowing¡¡on¡¡their¡¡familiarity¡¡with¡¡the¡¡retrieval¡¡cue¡¡

b£©¡¡The¡¡Accessibility¡¡Hypothesis¡¡suggests¡¡that¡¡people¡¡base¡¡their¡¡
judgments¡¡on¡¡accessibility¡¡of¡¡partial¡¡information¡¡from¡¡
memory¡¡

V¡£¡¡Structures¡¡in¡¡Long¡­Term¡¡Memory¡¡
A¡£¡¡Memory¡¡Structures¡¡
1¡£¡¡An¡¡essential¡¡function¡¡of¡¡memory¡¡is¡¡to¡¡draw¡¡together¡¡similar¡¡
experiences¡¡to¡¡enable¡¡you¡¡to¡¡discover¡¡patterns¡¡in¡¡your¡¡interaction¡¡with¡¡
the¡¡environment¡£¡¡This¡¡ability¡¡to¡¡categorize¡¡experience¡¡is¡¡one¡¡of¡¡the¡¡
most¡¡basic¡¡abilities¡¡of¡¡thinking¡¡organisms¡£¡¡
131¡¡


PSYCHOLOGY¡¡AND¡¡LIFE¡¡

2¡£¡¡Concepts¡¡are¡¡mental¡¡representations¡¡of¡¡the¡¡categories¡¡formed¡¡by¡¡the¡¡
individual¡£¡¡Concepts¡¡may¡¡represent¡¡objects£»¡¡activities£»¡¡properties£»¡¡
abstract¡¡ideas£»¡¡and¡¡relations¡£¡¡
3¡£¡¡Prototypes¡¡are¡¡averages¡¡across¡¡the¡¡pool¡¡of¡¡exemplars£»¡¡shifting¡¡slightly¡¡
each¡¡time¡¡a¡¡new¡¡exemplar¡¡is¡¡encountered¡¡
a£©¡¡People¡¡respond¡¡more¡¡quickly¡¡to¡¡typical¡¡members¡¡of¡¡a¡¡category¡¡
than¡¡to¡¡more¡¡unusual¡¡ones¡¡

b£©¡¡People¡¡find¡¡the¡¡average¡¡member¡¡of¡¡a¡¡category£»¡¡even¡¡when¡¡it¡¡is¡¡
an¡¡average¡¡face£»¡¡most¡¡pleasant¡¡

4¡£¡¡Concepts¡¡do¡¡not¡¡exist¡¡in¡¡isolation¡¡
a£©¡¡Basic¡¡level¡¡refers¡¡to¡¡a¡¡hierarchical¡¡level¡¡at¡¡which¡¡people¡¡best¡¡
categorize¡¡and¡¡think¡¡about¡¡objects¡¡

b£©¡¡Schemas¡¡are¡¡conceptual¡¡frameworks¡¡or¡¡clusters¡¡of¡¡knowledge¡¡
regarding¡¡objects£»¡¡people£»¡¡and¡¡situations¡£¡¡

£¨i£©¡¡These¡¡knowledge¡¡packages¡¡encode¡¡plex¡¡
generalizations¡¡about¡¡the¡¡individual¡¯s¡¡experience¡¡of¡¡
the¡¡structure¡¡of¡¡the¡¡environment¡£¡¡
£¨ii£©¡¡Schemas¡¡represent¡¡the¡¡individual¡¯s¡¡average¡¡
experience¡¡of¡¡situations¡¡in¡¡the¡¡environment£»¡¡and¡¡shift¡¡
with¡¡changing¡¡life¡¡events¡¡
B¡£¡¡Remembering¡¡as¡¡a¡¡Reconstructive¡¡Process¡¡
1¡£¡¡Information¡¡that¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡remembered¡¡directly¡¡may¡¡be¡¡reconstructed£»¡¡
based¡¡on¡¡more¡¡general¡¡types¡¡of¡¡stored¡¡knowledge¡¡
2¡£¡¡Reconstructive¡¡Memory¡¡is¡¡not¡¡100¡¡percent¡¡accurate¡£¡¡The¡¡reconstructed¡¡
memory¡¡is¡¡often¡¡different¡¡from¡¡the¡¡real¡¡occurrence¡£¡¡
3¡£¡¡Distortions¡¡in¡¡reconstructive¡¡memory¡¡involve¡¡three¡¡kinds¡¡of¡¡
reconstructive¡¡processes£º¡¡
a£©¡¡Leveling£»¡¡or¡¡simplifying¡¡the¡¡story¡¡

b£©¡¡Sharpening£»¡¡or¡¡highlighting¡¡and¡¡overemphasizing¡¡certain¡¡
details¡¡

c£©¡¡Assimilating£»¡¡or¡¡changing¡¡of¡¡details¡¡to¡¡better¡¡fit¡¡the¡¡
individual¡¯s¡¡own¡¡background¡¡or¡¡knowledge¡¡

4¡£¡¡Eyewitness¡¡Memory¡¡is¡¡quite¡¡vulnerable¡¡to¡¡distortion¡¡from¡¡post¡¡event¡¡
information¡¡
a£©¡¡Individuals¡¡may¡¡be¡¡unable¡¡to¡¡discriminate¡¡between¡¡original¡¡
sources¡¡of¡¡memory¡¡traces¡¡

b£©¡¡Research¡¡reinforces¡¡the¡¡belief¡¡that¡¡memories¡¡are¡¡often¡¡collages£»¡¡
reconstructed¡¡from¡¡different¡¡elements¡¡of¡¡the¡¡individual¡¯s¡¡past¡¡
experiences¡¡

c£©¡¡Post¡¡event¡¡information¡¡can¡¡impair¡¡eyewitness¡¡memories¡¡even¡¡
when¡¡the¡¡witnesses¡¡are¡¡made¡¡explicitly¡¡aware¡¡that¡¡the¡¡
experimenter¡¡has¡¡attempted¡¡to¡¡mislead¡¡them¡¡

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CHAPTER¡¡8£º¡¡MEMORY¡¡

d£©¡¡When¡¡people¡¡are¡¡repeatedly¡¡exposed¡¡to¡¡the¡¡misleading¡¡
postevent¡¡information£»¡¡they¡¡bee¡¡even¡¡more¡¡likely¡¡to¡¡report¡¡
false¡¡memories¡¡as¡¡real¡¡

VI¡£¡¡Biological¡¡Aspects¡¡of¡¡Memory¡¡
A¡£¡¡Searching¡¡for¡¡the¡¡Engram¡¡
1¡£¡¡Lashley¡¡concluded¡¡that¡¡the¡¡elusive¡¡engram¨Ca¡¡physical¡¡memory¡¡
representation¡¡in¡¡the¡¡brain¡¡¨Cdid¡¡not¡¡exist¡¡in¡¡any¡¡localized¡¡regions¡¡but¡¡
that¡¡it¡¡was¡¡widely¡¡distributed¡¡throughout¡¡the¡¡entire¡¡brain¡¡
2¡£¡¡Four¡¡major¡¡brain¡¡structures¡¡are¡¡involved¡¡in¡¡memory£º¡¡
a£©¡¡Cerebellum£»¡¡essential¡¡for¡¡procedural¡¡memory£»¡¡memories¡¡
acquired¡¡through¡¡repetition£»¡¡and¡¡classically¡¡conditioned¡¡
responses¡¡

b£©¡¡Striatum£»¡¡a¡¡plex¡¡of¡¡structures¡¡in¡¡the¡¡forebrain£»¡¡the¡¡likely¡¡
basis¡¡for¡¡habit¡¡formation¡¡and¡¡stimulus¡­response¡¡connections¡¡

c£©¡¡Cerebral¡¡cortex£»¡¡responsible¡¡for¡¡sensory¡¡memories¡¡and¡¡
associations¡¡between¡¡sensations¡¡

d£©¡¡Amygdala¡¡and¡¡hippocampus£»¡¡largely¡¡responsible¡¡for¡¡declarative¡¡
memo

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