唄診窮徨慕 > 利大墫鹿窮徨慕 > 伉尖僥嚥伏試 >

及55嫗

伉尖僥嚥伏試-及55嫗

弌傍�� 伉尖僥嚥伏試 忖方�� 耽匈4000忖

梓囚徒貧圭�鮗� ○ 賜 ★ 辛酔堀貧和鍬匈��梓囚徒貧議 Enter 囚辛指欺云慕朕村匈��梓囚徒貧圭�鮗� ● 辛指欺云匈競何��
!!!!隆堋響頼��紗秘慕禰厮宴和肝写偬堋響��



encoding and retrieval conditions 
B。 Context and Encoding 
1。 Encoding specificity suggests that memories emerge most efficiently 
when the context of retrieval matches the context of encoding 
2。 The Serial Position Effect suggests that the first and last items in a series 
will be remembered better than items in the middle and is prised 
of two separate effects�此�
a�� The Primacy Effect suggests that the first items learned in a 
series will be remembered better than others 

b�� The Recency Effect suggests that the last items learned in a 
series will be remembered better than others 

c�� Contextual Distinctiveness suggests that the distinctiveness of 
an item in a series may explain both the primacy and the 
recency effects 

C。 Retrieval Cues 
1。 Recall involves the reproduction of information to which you were 
previously exposed 
2。 Recognition refers to the realization that a certain stimulus event is one 
you have seen or heard before 
129 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

3。 Retrieval cues are the stimuli available as you search for a particular 
memory 
a�� Retrieval cues can be provided externally by the environment�察�
or generated internally by associations and physical states 

b�� Retrieval cues are more straightforward and more useful for 
recognition dm for recall 

4。 Episodic and Semantic memory are two types of declarative memory 
a�� Episodic memories preserve�察�individually�察�the specific events 
that you have personally experienced 

��i�� All memories begin as episodic memories 
b�� Semantic memories are generic�察�categorical memories�察�such as 
the meanings of words and concepts 

5。 Interference occurs when retrieval cues do not point effectively to one 
specific memory 
a�� Proactive interference occurs when information acquired in the 
past makes it more difficult to acquire new information 

b�� Retroactive interference occurs when the acquisition of new 
information makes it harder to remember older information 

D。 The Processes of Encoding and Retrieval 
1。 Memory functions best when encoding and retrieval processes match 
2。 Levels´of´Processing theory suggests that the deeper the level at which 
information is processed�察�the more likely it is to be mitted to 
memory 
a�� A difficulty with levels´of´processing theory is that it is not 
always possible to specify exactly what makes certain 
processes ^shallow ̄ or ^deep ̄ 

3。 Processes and Implicit Memory 
a�� Transfer´appropriate processing suggests that memory is best 
when the type of processing carried out at encoding transfers 
to the processes required at retrieval 

��i�� Implicit memory is assessed using one of four tasks�此�
��a�� Word fragment pletion 
��b�� Word stem pletion 
��c�� Word identification 
��d�� Anagrams 
b�� Priming is a process in which the first experience of the word 
primes memory for later experiences�察�and is used to assess the 
degree of implicit memory 

c�� These four implicit memory tests rely on a physical match 

130 


CHAPTER 8�此�MEMORY 

between the original stimulus and the information given at 

test 

d�� Category association relies on meaning or concept rather than 
physical match 

4。 Research suggests that if a specific type of processing is used to 
encode information�察�that information will be retrieved most efficiently 
when the retrieval method uses the same type of analysis 
E。 Improving Memory for Unstructured Information 
1。 Information that is not meaningful is difficult to remember 
2。 Strategies for improving encoding include elaborative rehearsal and 
mnemonics 
a�� Elaborative rehearsal refers to elaboration on the material to 
enrich encoding�察�such as inventing a relationship that makes 
an association less arbitrary 

b�� Mnemonics are devices that encode a long series of facts by 
associating them with familiar and previously encoded 
information 

��i�� Method of loci associates objects with some sequence 
of places with which the individual is familiar 
��ii�� Acrostic´like mnemonics use the first letter of each word 
to cue a response 
��iii�� Acronym mnemonics are instances in which the letter of 
a word stands for a name or other piece of 
information 
3。 The key to learning arbitrary information is to encode information in a 
way that provides yourself with efficient retrieval cues 
F。 Metamemory 
1。 Metamemory refers to implicit or explicit knowledge about memory 
abilities and effective memory strategies 
2。 Feelings´of´knowing are subjective sensations that the information is 
stored somewhere in memory 
a�� The cue familiarity hypothesis suggests that people base their 
feelings of knowing on their familiarity with the retrieval cue 

b�� The Accessibility Hypothesis suggests that people base their 
judgments on accessibility of partial information from 
memory 

V。 Structures in Long´Term Memory 
A。 Memory Structures 
1。 An essential function of memory is to draw together similar 
experiences to enable you to discover patterns in your interaction with 
the environment。 This ability to categorize experience is one of the 
most basic abilities of thinking organisms。 
131 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

2。 Concepts are mental representations of the categories formed by the 
individual。 Concepts may represent objects�察�activities�察�properties�察�
abstract ideas�察�and relations。 
3。 Prototypes are averages across the pool of exemplars�察�shifting slightly 
each time a new exemplar is encountered 
a�� People respond more quickly to typical members of a category 
than to more unusual ones 

b�� People find the average member of a category�察�even when it is 
an average face�察�most pleasant 

4。 Concepts do not exist in isolation 
a�� Basic level refers to a hierarchical level at which people best 
categorize and think about objects 

b�� Schemas are conceptual frameworks or clusters of knowledge 
regarding objects�察�people�察�and situations。 

��i�� These knowledge packages encode plex 
generalizations about the individual¨s experience of 
the structure of the environment。 
��ii�� Schemas represent the individual¨s average 
experience of situations in the environment�察�and shift 
with changing life events 
B。 Remembering as a Reconstructive Process 
1。 Information that cannot be remembered directly may be reconstructed�察�
based on more general types of stored knowledge 
2。 Reconstructive Memory is not 100 percent accurate。 The reconstructed 
memory is often different from the real occurrence。 
3。 Distortions in reconstructive memory involve three kinds of 
reconstructive processes�此�
a�� Leveling�察�or simplifying the story 

b�� Sharpening�察�or highlighting and overemphasizing certain 
details 

c�� Assimilating�察�or changing of details to better fit the 
individual¨s own background or knowledge 

4。 Eyewitness Memory is quite vulnerable to distortion from post event 
information 
a�� Individuals may be unable to discriminate between original 
sources of memory traces 

b�� Research reinforces the belief that memories are often collages�察�
reconstructed from different elements of the individual¨s past 
experiences 

c�� Post event information can impair eyewitness memories even 
when the witnesses are made explicitly aware that the 
experimenter has attempted to mislead them 

132 


CHAPTER 8�此�MEMORY 

d�� When people are repeatedly exposed to the misleading 
postevent information�察�they bee even more likely to report 
false memories as real 

VI。 Biological Aspects of Memory 
A。 Searching for the Engram 
1。 Lashley concluded that the elusive engram�Ca physical memory 
representation in the brain �Cdid not exist in any localized regions but 
that it was widely distributed throughout the entire brain 
2。 Four major brain structures are involved in memory�此�
a�� Cerebellum�察�essential for procedural memory�察�memories 
acquired through repetition�察�and classically conditioned 
responses 

b�� Striatum�察�a plex of structures in the forebrain�察�the likely 
basis for habit formation and stimulus´response connections 

c�� Cerebral cortex�察�responsible for sensory memories and 
associations between sensations 

d�� Amygdala and hippocampus�察�largely responsible for declarative 
memo

卦指朕村 貧匯匈 和匯匈 指欺競何 壘��2�� 家��4��

低辛嬬浪散議