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心理学与生活-第54章

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famed work at Harvard during the 1930s。 

Skinner and Behavior Change: Research; Practice and Promise (1979)。 REPR; 45 minutes 

The development of modern behaviorism is examined。 Skinner is interviewed on theory; uses; and 
ethical issues。 Examples of the uses of behavior modification are shown。 

A World of Difference: B。 F。 Skinner and the Good Life; Parts 1 and 2 (1979)。 TLF; 53 minutes 

Traces the development of behaviorism and B。 F。 Skinner’s application of the theory in raising his 
infant daughter in an environmentally controlled box; as well as his early experiments with 
pigeons。 Includes a visit by Skinner and his family to Twin Oaks; the rural Virginia mune that 

attempts to live according to the principles in Walden Two。 mune members describe their 
successes; failures; and modifications of Skinner’s model; emphasizing their difficulties with sex 
and economic roles。 Produced for the NOVA series。 

Keynote Address: B。 F。 Skinner’s Lifetime Scientific Contribution Remarks (1990)。 American 
Psychological Association; 19 minutes 

Skinner reviews the path psychology has taken from early introspective methods to modern day 
methods including natural selection and operant conditioning。 

126 


CHAPTER 8 
Memory 

LEARNING OBJECTIVES 

On pletion of this chapter; students should be able to: 

1。 Identify and describe the different types of memory; such as implicit; explicit; declarative; 
and procedural 
2。 Understand the sensory memory systems 
3。 Describe the nature and functions of short…term and working memory 
4。 Describe the nature and functions of long…term memory 
5。 Demonstrate knowledge of interference theory 
6。 Explain the significance of encoding specificity to the retrieval process 
7。 Describe the nature and implications of the serial position curve 
8。 Demonstrate an understanding of levels of processing theory 
9。 Define the nature and function of metamemory 
10。 Identify the importance of reconstructive processes to memory 
CHAPTER OUTLINE 

I。 What is Memory? 
A。 The goal of the chapter is to explain how you usually remember so much; and why you 
forget some of what you have known 
1。 Memory; a type of information processing; is the capacity to store; 
encode; and retrieve information 
B。 Ebbinghaus Quantifies Memory 
1。 Ebbinghaus made a cogent argument for empirical investigation of 
memory and developed a brilliant methodology to study it 
a) Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables and rote learning to study 
what he thought was pure memory 

b) Non…sense syllables are meaningless three…letter binations 
consisting of a consonant; followed by a vowel; followed by a 
consonant。 Ebbinghaus felt that these meaningless 
binations were not contaminated by previous learning。 

c) Rote learning is memorizing by mechanical repetition; as when 
memorizing a list of words 

126 


CHAPTER 8: MEMORY 

d) In his methodology; Ebbinghaus learned lists of nonsense 

syllable to a criterion performance level; in his case perfect 
memory。 He would then distract himself for an interval by 
studying other lists; and then relearn the original list。 

Ebbinghaus called the difference between the time to learn the 
list originally and the time to relearn the list as savings。 

e) Ebbinghaus; and many psychologists that followed him; 
assumed that there was only one type of memory。 This 
assumption turned out to be incorrect。 

C。 Types of Memory 
1。 Implicit and Explicit Memory 
a) Implicit memory is that which bees available without 
conscious effort 

b) Explicit memory is that in which the individual makes a 
conscious effort to recover information 

2。 Declarative and Procedural Memory 
a) Declarative memory involves the recollection of facts and events 

b) Procedural memory involves the recollection of how to do 
things 

c) Knowledge pilation is the ability to carry out sequences of 
activity without conscious intervention。 Knowledge 
pilation makes it difficult to share procedural knowledge。 

D。 An Overview of Memory Processes 
1。 All memory requires the operation of three mental processes: 
a) Encoding; the initial processing of information that leads to 
representation in memory 
b) Storage; the retention over time of encoded information 
c) Retrieval; the recovery of the stored information at a later time 

2。 Mental traces are the mental representations of individual memories 
II。Sensory Memory 
A。 Sensory Memory refers to the initial memory processes involved in the momentary 
preservation of fleeting impressions of sensory stimuli。 Each of your sensory modalities has 
a sensory memory or sensory register that extends the availability of information acquired 
from the environment 
B。 Iconic Memory 
1。 Iconic memory is sensory memory in the visual domain 
2。 A visual memory; or icon; lasts about half a second 
127 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

3。 Iconic memory is not the same as eidetic imagery; or photographic memory; 
which holds images in memory much longer than iconic memory。 
Eidetic imagery is rarely found in adults 
C。 Echoic Memory 
1。 Echoic memory is sensory memory for sounds 
2。 Echoic memories are easily displaced by new information that is similar 
to the sensory experience that gave rise to the memory 
3。 The suffix effect; where a similar sound impedes memory by replacing 
a sensory memory in the final digit in echoic memory; is an example of 
the displacement of echoic memories 
4。 Categorization influences echoic memory because what organisms 
believe that they are hearing determines the relevance and importance 
of the memory 
III。 Short…Term Memory and Working Memory 
A。 Definitions 
1。 Short…term memory is a built…in mechanism for focusing cognitive 
resources on a small set of mental representations 
2。 Working memory is a broader concept of the types of memory processes 
that provide a foundation for the moment…by…moment fluidity of 
thought and action 
B。 The Capacity Limitations of Short…Term Memory 
1。 The limited capacity of short…term memory enforces a sharp focus of 
attention 
2。 George Miller proposed that seven; plus or minus two; was the “magic 
number” that characterized the limits of short…term memory 
C。 Acmodating to Short…Term Memory Capacity 
1。 Despite the severe limitations of short…term memory; individuals are 
able to enhance the functioning of short…term memory in several ways: 
a) Rehearsal involves the rapid repetition of information that is 
designed to keep it in short…term memory 

b) Chunking involves the grouping of information into 
meaningful units that can then occupy a single digit of short…
term memory 

c) The high speed of the retrieval process from short…term 
memory 

2。 Rehearsal and chunking both relate to the way in which you encode 
information to enhance the probability that it will remain or fit in 
short…term memory 
D。 Working Memory 
128 


CHAPTER 8: MEMORY 

1。 Working memory; which subsumes classic short…term memory and 
also allows retrieval of existing memories; is prised of three 
ponents: 
a) A phonological loop; which holds and manipulates speech…
based information 

b) A visuospatial sketchpad; which performs the same types of 
functions as the phonological loop for visual and spatial 
information 

c) A central executive; which is responsible for controlling 
attention and coordinating information from other 
subsystems 

2。 Incorporating short…term memory under working memory helps 
reinforce the idea that short…term memory is a process; not a place 
3。 Working memory span is a measure of the capacity of working memory 
4。 Working memory helps maintain your psychological present 
IV。 Long…term Memory: Encoding and Retrieval 
A。 Definitions 
1。 Long…term memory is the storehouse of all the experiences; events; 
information; emotions; skills; words; categories; rules; and judgments 
that have been acquired from sensory and short…term memories 
2。 Long…term memory is best when there is a good match between 
encoding and retrieval conditions 
B。 Context and Encoding 
1。 Encoding specificity suggests that memories emerge most efficiently 
when the 

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