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心理学与生活-第72章

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e) Mother feels fetal movements at about week 16 

f) Prenatal brain growth generates 250;000 neurons per minute 

(i) Proliferation and migration of neurons in humans 
and many other mammals occur prenatally 
(ii) Development of branching processes of axons and 
dendrites occurs largely after birth 
2。 Babies Prewired for Survival 
a) Hearing functions before birth; as evidenced by neonates 
preference for its mother’s voice 

b) Vision is less well developed at birth than are other senses; 
and though “legally blind;” neonates’ eyes turn in the 
direction of a voice 

(i) Infants perceive best large objects displaying high 
contrast 
(ii) By 4 months of age; infants prefer looking at 
contoured objects rather than plain ones; plex 
objects to simple ones; and whole faces to those with 
disarrayed features 
3。 Growth and Maturation in Childhood 
a) Disproportionate early growth takes place within the head 

(i) Total mass of axons and neurons rapidly increases 
the total mass of brain cells 
(ii) Infant boys’ weight doubles in the first 6 months of 
life; and triples by age 1 
(iii) At age 2; the child’s trunk is about half its adult 
length 
(iv) Genital tissue growth is unremarkable until 
adolescence 
b) Much of early growth occurs in concentrated bursts 

c) In most children; physical growth is acpanied by 
maturation of motor ability 

d) Maturation refers to the process of growth typical of all 
members of a species who are reared in the species usual 
habitat; and describes systematic changes occurring; over 
time; in bodily functioning and behavior 

e) Maturation is influenced by genetic factors; pre… and postnatal 
chemical environments; and sensory factors that are constant 
for all members of the species 

184 


CHAPTER 11: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 

f) By ages 6 to 7; most basic motor skills are in place 

4。 Physical Development in Adolescence 
a) First concrete indication of childhood’s end is the pubescent 
growth spurt; about age 10 for girls and about 12 for boys; with 
flow of hormones into bloodstream 

b) Puberty; sexual maturity; is reached 2 to 3 years following the 
onset of the growth spurt 

(i) For females; puberty begins with menarche 
(ii) For males; puberty begins with production of live 
sperm 
(iii) Physical changes often bring an awareness of sexual 
feelings 
c) Physical changes of adolescence may exaggerate the 
adolescent’s concern with their body image; their subjective 
view of their appearance 

(i) Females seem to have less average confidence in their 
physical attractiveness dm do males 
(ii) When exaggerated; females preoccupation with body 
image and aspects of the social self can lead to self…
destructive behavior; such as eating disorders 
(a) Anorexia; involves self…imposed starvation 
(b) Bulimia; involves binging and purging 
C。 Physical Changes In Adulthood 
1。 Some senses may bee less acute 
2。 Changes occur gradually 
3。 Many physical changes occur as a result of disuse; rather than aging 
4。 Some changes are largely unavoidable 
a) Visual function diminishes for most people over age 65 

(i) Lenses of eyes bee yellowed and less flexible 
(ii) Lens rigidity impacts adaptation to dark 
b) Hearing loss is mon past age 60 

(i) Older adults may have difficulty hearing high…
frequency sounds; with males experiencing more 
difficulty than females 
(ii) Changes in hearing are gradual and may not be 
realized until they are extreme 
c) Reproductive and sexual functioning changes 

(i) Females experience menopause around age 50 
(ii) Quantity of sperm in males decreases after age 40; 
and seminal fluid volume declines past age 60 
(iii) Increasing age and physical change do not 
necessarily impair other aspects of sexual experience 
III。 Cognitive Development across the Life Span 
185 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

A。 Cognitive development is the study of the processes and products of the mind; as they 
emerge and change over time 
B。 Piaget’s Insights into Mental Development 
1。 Piaget saw the mind as an active biological system; seeking; selecting; 
interpreting; and reorganizing environmental information to fit with 
or adjust to its own existing mental structures 
2。 Piaget’s interest was not in the amount of information children 
possessed; but in the ways children’s thinking and inner 
representations of outer physical reality changed at different stages in 
their development 
3。 Schemes are the mental structures enabling the individual to interpret 
the world 
a) Schemes are the building blocks of development change 

b) Piaget characterized infants’ initial schemes as sensorimotor 
intelligence 

(i) First dependent on physical presence of objects that 
could be sucked; watched; or grasped 
(ii) Later; mental structures increasingly incorporate 
symbolic representations of outer reality 
4。 Piaget saw cognitive development as the result of the interweaving of 
assimilation and acmodation。 These two processes work in tandem 
to achieve cognitive growth 

a) Assimilation modifies new environmental information to fit 
into what is already known 

b) Acmodation restructures or modifies the child’s existing 
schemes so that new information is accounted for more 
pletely 

c) Discrepancies between already held ideas and new 
experiences force development of more adaptive inner 
structures and processes that permit creative and appropriate 
actions to meet future challenges 

5。 Stages in Cognitive Development 
a) Sensorimotor stage: infancy; roughly from birth to age 2 

(i) Child is tied to the immediate environment and 
motor…action themes 
(ii) Most important cognitive acquisition of infancy is 
attainment of object permanence; the ability to form 
mental representations of absent objects 
b) Preoperational stage: roughly 2 to 7 years of age 

(i) Main cognitive advance is improved ability to 
mentally represent objects not physically present 
186 


CHAPTER 11: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 

(ii) Piaget characterized this stage in terms of what the 
child cannot do; other than the development of 
representational thought 
(iii) Child’s thoughts at this stage are characterized by 
egocentrism; an inability to take the perspective of 
another; or to imagine a scene from any perspective 
other than one’s own; as demonstrated by Piaget’s 
three…mountain task 

(iv) Children at this stage have difficulty distinguishing 
the mental from the physical world; as demonstrated 
by animistic thought 
(v) Centration is the tendency to be captivated (centrated) 
by the more perceptually striking features of objects 
c) Concrete operational stage: roughly ages 7 to 11 years of age 

(i) Child is capable of mental operations 
(ii) Mastery of conservation is a hallmark of this stage 
(iii) Children at this stage generally do not ask abstract 
questions; but remain with specifics 
d) Formal operational stage: roughly from age 11 on 

(i) Represent the final stage of cognitive growth; in 
which thinking bees abstract 
(ii) Adolescents realize their reality is only one of several 
that are imaginable; and begin pondering deeper 
questions of truth; justice; and existence 
(iii) Individual begins to impose his/her own structures 
on tasks; beginning with broad categories; then 
formulating and testing hypotheses in light of the 
individual’s knowledge of categories and 
relationships 
C。 Contemporary Perspectives on Early Cognitive Development 
1。 Contemporary research posits a greater degree of order; organization; 
and coherence in the perceptual and cognitive experience of the infant 
and young child than that proposed by Piaget 
2。 Recent research shows that differences in conceptual understanding 
between preoperational and concrete operational children may be a 
difference in immediate memory 
a) The sensorimotor child revisited: 3…month…old neonates may 
have already developed the concept of object permanence; as 
well as being able to integrate information across sensory 
domains 

b) The preoperational child revisited 

(i) Egocentrism may not be ongoing

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