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心理学与生活-第84章

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B。 The Psychology of Eating 
1。 Psychological focus is on circumstances in which people try to 
exercise control over the consequences of eating 
2。 Obesity and Dieting 
a) Resting metabolic rate is the rate at which an individual’s 
body bums calories that maintain basic functions 

b) Biological predisposition may or may not “cause” an 

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CHAPTER 12: MOTIVATION 

individual to bee obese 

c) Key is how individual thinks about food and eating behaviors 

d) Herman and Polivy propose the dimension underlying the 
psychology of eating behaviors to be restrained vs。 
unrestrained eating 

(i) Restrained eaters put constant limits on amount of 
food they will let themselves consume 
(ii) Restrained eaters gain weight even when dieting; 
because they bee periodically disinhibited and 
indulge in high…calorie bingeing 
(iii) Psychological consequences of constant dieting can 
create circumstances more likely to lead to weight 
gain than to weight loss 
3。 Eating Disorders and Body Image 
a) Anorexia nervosa: Individual weighs less than 85% of expected 
weight; but continues to express fear of being fat。 These 
individuals may also be bulimic 

b) Bulimia nervosa: Characterized by periods of intense; out…ofcontrol 
eating; or bingeing; followed by efforts to purge the 
body of excess calories through: 

(i) Self…induced vomiting 
(ii) Misuse of laxatives 
(iii) Fasting 
c) Both disorders result in systematic starvation of the body that 
may have serious medical consequences 

d) Prevalence of anorexia nervosa in late…adolescent and young 
adult females is about 0。5 to 1。0 percent 

e) Prevalence of bulimia nervosa during late…adolescent and 
young adult females is about 1。0 to 3。0 percent 

f) Females suffer eating disorders at approximately 10 times the 
rate of males 

III。 Sexual Behaviors 
A。 Nonhuman Sexual Behaviors 
1。 Nonhuman sexual behaviors have reproduction as their primary 
motivation 
2。 Sexual arousal is primarily physiologically determined by 
a) Secretion of hormones 

b) Stereotypical sexual behaviors for all members of a given 
species 

c) Arousal may be initiated by environmental stimuli (e。g。; 
ritualized behavior by potential partners may be a necessary 
condition for sexual response) 

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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

d) Chemical signals; pheromones; are secreted by some species to 
attract suitors 

B。 Human Sexual Arousal and Response 
1。 Hormonal activity has no known effect on sexual receptivity or 
gratification in most men and women 
2。 Sexual Arousal is the motivational state of excitement and tension 
brought about by physiological and cognitive reactions to erotic 
stimuli 
a) Erotic stimuli; which may be physiological or psychological; 
give rise to sexual excitement or feelings of passion 

3。 Research by Masters and Johnson provided four basic conclusions 
regarding human sexuality 
a) Men and women have similar patterns of sexual response 

b) Although the sequence of phases of the sexual response cycle 
is similar in the two sexes; women are more variable; tending 
to respond more slowly but often remaining aroused longer 

c) Many women can have multiple orgasms; while men rarely 
do so in a parable time period 

d) Penis size is generally unrelated to any aspect of sexual 
performance (other than the attitude of the male regarding 
having a large penis) 

4。 Phases of the sexual response cycle; according to Masters and 
Johnson: 
a) Excitement: Vascular changes in pelvic region; including 
erection of penis and clitoral swelling; sexual flush appears 

b) Plateau: Maximum level of arousal is reached; with increased 
heart rate; respiration; and blood pressure; vaginal 
lubrications increase and breasts swell 

c) Orgasm: Intense; pleasurable release from sexual tension; very 
high respiration rate and blood pressure; and heart rate may 
double 

d) Resolution: Body returns gradually to normal; pre…excitement 
state。 Most males enter a refractory period during which no 
further orgasm is possible。 With sustained arousal; females 
are capable of multiple orgasms in rapid succession 

C。 The Evolution of Sexual Behaviors 
1。 Evolution may have led men and women to different strategies that 
underlie their sexual behavior 
a) Male role tends toward short…term mating; giving signs of 
loyalty and mitment followed by leaving the female 

b) Female role is more inclined to long…term mating; attraction of a 
loyal male who will remain with her; helping to raise her 

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CHAPTER 12: MOTIVATION 

children 

D。 Sexual Norms 
1。 Sexual norms are culturally acquired behaviors that are considered to 
be appropriate for expression of sexual impulses 
2。 Sexual scripts are socially learned programs of sexual responsiveness 
that include prescriptions (usually unspoken) of 
a) What to do 

b) When; where; and how to do it 

c) With whom or with what to do it 

d) Why it should be done 

3。 Sexual scripts include not only expectations of appropriate behavior 
for ourselves; but also expectations of appropriate behavior for our 
partner(s) 
4。 Date Rape 
a) Research with college students indicates date rape is an area 
of devastating conflict between sexual scripts of males and 
females 

(i) Research indicates that for both genders; unwanted 
sex was related to perceiving male…female 
relationships as adversarial 
(ii) Specific correlation was the male script that females 
will offer token resistance to avoid appearing 
promiscuous 
E。 Homosexuality 
1。 Homosexuality should not be considered a deviation from 
heterosexuality but like all sexual behavior; involves a bination of 
both internal and external motivational forces; including the 
excitement and tension brought about by physiological and cognitive 
reactions to erotic stimuli 
2。 Homosexuality is set apart from heterosexuality by the continuing 
hostility toward homosexual behaviors from many areas of society 
3。 Many gay men and lesbians suffer internalized homophobia or 
internalized homo…negativity as a result of societal hostility 
4。 Much anxiety attached to homosexuality is a function of the 
individual’s need to reveal or conceal his/her homosexuality from 
family; friends; and co…workers; rather than being a function of 
actually being homosexual 
5。 Data suggest much of the stress associated with homosexuality is not 
from the sexual motivation itself; but from the ways in which people 
respond to the revelation of that sexual motivation 
IV。 Motivation for Personal Achievement 
A。 Need for Achievement 
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PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

1。 Murray postulated a need for achievement (n Ach) as a variable that 
fluctuated in strength in different people; and influenced their 
tendency to approach success and evaluate their own performances 
2。 McClelland used the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) to measure 
strength of n Ach 
3。 n Ach reflected individual differences in the importance of planning 
and working toward attainment of one’s goals 
a) High scores on n Ach reflected upward mobility 

b) High n Ach individuals typified by a need for efficiency 

c) Level of n Ach may derive from parenting practices 

B。 Atttibutions for Success and Failure 
1。 Attributions are judgments about the causes of outes that can 
impact level of motivation 
2。 Attributions can vary along three dimensions: locus of control; 
stability versus instability; and global versus specific 
a) Locus of control orientation is a belief that outes of our 
actions are contingent on: 

(i) What we do (internal control orientation) 
(ii) Environmental factors that are outside our personal 
control (external control orientation) 
b) The dimension of stability versus instability can be assessed by 
asking to what extent is a causal factor likely to be stable and 
consistent over time? 

c) The global versus specific dimension can be assessed by asking 
to what extent is a causal factor highly specific and limited to 
a particular task or situation? 

3。 Attribution made will impact both emotions and subsequent 
motivation settings; regardless of the true reason f

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