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心理学与生活-第90章

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6。 Describe the physiological responses to both acute and chronic stress 
7。 Define and describe the field of psychoneuroimmunology 
8。 Describe the biopsychosocial model of health and the field of health psychology 
9。 Identify relationships between personality type and health 
CHAPTER OUTLINE 

I。 Emotions 
A。 Basic Emotions and Culture 
1。 Are Some Emotional Responses Innate? 
a) Tompkins observed that infants respond with immediate; unlearned 
affective reactions to certain stimuli; such as loud sounds 
b) Research confirms that some emotional responses are universal 
c) Emotional responses are less well differentiated in infants than in 

older individuals 

2。 Are Emotional Expressions Universal? 
a) Ekman posits that all people share an overlap in facial language 
b) Seven facial expressions are recognized and produced cross…culturally 
in response to the emotions of happiness; surprise; anger; disgust; fear; 
sadness; and contempt 
c) Ekman used a neuro…cultural position to reflect the joint contributions 
of the brain and culture in emotional expression 

3。 How does Culture Constrain Emotional Expression? 
a) Different cultures have varying standards for management of emotion 
b) Cultures establish social rules or norms regarding when and where 
certain emotions should be displayed 

240 


CHAPTER 13: EMOTION; STRESS; AND HEALTH 

B。 Theories of Emotion 
1。 Theories of emotion attempt to explain the relationship between physiological 
and psychological aspects of the experience of emotion 
2。 The physiology of emotion refers to those responses that are designed to 
mobilize the body for action to deal with the source of the emotion 
a) The autonomic nervous system (ANS) prepares the body for emotional 
responses through action of the sympathetic and parasympathetic 
nervous systems 

(i) The sympathetic nervous system is more active when stimuli 
are mild and unpleasant 
(ii) The parasympathetic nervous system is more active when 
stimuli are mild and pleasant 
b) Strong emotions such as fear or anger activate the body’s emergency 
reaction system; which prepares the body for potential danger 

c) Integration of hormonal and neural aspects of arousal is controlled by 
the hypothalamus and the limbic system 

(i) The amygdala (part of the limbic system) serves as a gateway 
for emotion and a filter for memory 
(ii) The hypothalamus; located in the cortex; is involved as 
switching station; with its connections to other parts of the 
body 
3。 James…Lange Theory of Body Reaction 
a) Holds that emotion stems from bodily feedback; in which the 
perception of stimulus causes autonomic arousal and other bodily 
actions that lead to the experience of an emotion 

b) Considered a peripheralist theory; it assigns the most prominent role 
in the chain of emotional response to visceral reactions of the ANS 

4。 Cannon…Bard Theory of Central Neural Processes 
a) Takes a centralist focus on the actions of the central nervous system 
(CNS) 

b) Four objections to James…Lange Theory: 

(i) Visceral activity is irrelevant for emotional experience 
(ii) Visceral responses are similar across different arousal 
situations; e。g。; love making and fear 
(iii) Many emotions are not distinguishable from others simply by 
their physiological ponents 
(iv) ANS responses are too slow to be the source of emotions 
elicited in a split…second 
c) Cannon…Bard proposed that emotion requires the brain to intercede 
between input of stimulus and output of response 

d) Proposed that emotion…arousing stimuli have simultaneous effects; 
causing both bodily arousal and the subjective experience of emotion 
(via the cortex) 

241 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

5。 Cognitive Appraisal Theories of Emotion 
a) Schachter proposed emotion to be the joint effect of physiological 
arousal and cognitive appraisal; with both necessary for emotion to 
occur 

b) Lazarus maintains that “emotional experience cannot be understood 
solely in terms of what happens in the person or in the brain; but 
grows out of ongoing transactions with the environment that are 
evaluated。” 

c) Challenges to Lazarus…Schachter 

(i) Awareness of physiological arousal is not a necessary 
condition 
(ii) Experiencing strong arousal without obvious cause does not 
lead to a neutral; undifferentiated state 
(iii) Zajonc demonstrates possibility of having preferences 
without inferences; and to feel without knowing why—the 
mere exposure effect 

d) Safest conclusion is that cognitive appraisal is an important; but not 
the only; aspect of emotional experience 

C。 Functions of Emotion 
1。 Motivation and Arousal 
a) Emotions serve a motivational function by arousing the individual to 
take action with regard to an experienced or imagined event 

b) Emotions direct and sustain behaviors toward specific goals 

c) Emotions provide feedback by amplifying or intensifying selected life 
experiences; by signaling that a response is significant or has self…
relevance 

d) Emotions give an awareness of inner conflicts 

e) Yerkes…Dodson law: Performance of difficult tasks decreases; as 
arousal increases; whereas performance of easy tasks increases as 
arousal increases 

(i) Relationship between arousal and performance has a U…
shaped function; predicting that too little or too much arousal 
impairs performance 
(ii) Explores possibility that optimal arousal level produces peak 
performance 
(iii) Key to level of arousal is task difficulty 
2。 Social Functions of Emotion 
a) Emotions serve the function of regulating social interactions 

(i) Stimulation of prosocial behaviors 
(ii) Aid in social munication 
3。 Emotional Effects on Cognitive Functioning 
a) Mood…congruent processing: Material congruent with one’s prevailing 
mood is more likely to be attended to; noticed; and processed at a 
deeper level than noncongruent material 

242 


CHAPTER 13: EMOTION; STRESS; AND HEALTH 

b) Mood…dependent memory refers to recall of a previous emotional event 
that occurs when the individual is in the same mood as during the 
previous event 

II。Stress of Living 
A。 Definitions 
1。 Stress is the pattern of responses an organism makes to stimulus events that 
disturb its equilibrium and tax or exceed its ability to cope 
2。 Stressor refers to a stimulus event that places a demand on an organism for 
some kind of adaptive response 
B。 Physiological Stress Reactions 
1。 Acute stress refers to transient states of arousal; with typically clear onset and 
offset patterns 
2。 Chronic stress refers to a state of enduring arousal; continuing over time; in 
which demands placed on the organism are perceived by the organism as 
being greater than the inner and outer resources available for dealing with 
them 
3。 Emergency Reactions to Acute Threats 
a) Cannon first described the fight…or…flight response; a sequence of 
internal activity that prepare the body to either defend itself or to run 
away when faced with danger 

b) Physiology of the stress response: 

(i) Hypothalamus referred to as the stress center due to its dual 
functions in emergencies: 
(a) Control of autonomic nervous system 
(b) Activation of the pituitary gland 
(ii) ANS regulates activities of organs 
(a) The adrenal medulla to release epinephrine and 
norepinephrine 
(b) The pituitary to secrete thyrotrophic hormone (TTH) 
(stimulating the thyroid) and adrenocorticotrophic 
hormone (ACTH) (stimulating the adrenal cortex) 
4。 The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) and Chronic Stress 
a) Selye described the GAS as including three stages: 

(i) Alarm reaction 
(ii) Stage of resistance 
(iii) Stage of exhaustion 
b) Process is successful at restoration of body’s balance only when 
stressor is short…lived or acute 

c) Chronic stress promises integrity of the immune system 

d) Application of GAS has been valuable in explaining psychosomatic 
disorders 

243 


PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 

C。 Psychological Stress Reactions 
1。 Major Life Events 
a) Major changes in the life situation are the root cause of stress for many 
individuals 

(i) The Social Readj

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